What Causes Myxomatosis?

Myxomatosis is caused by the myxoma virus. This virus occurs naturally in Sylvilagus species (cottontails/related rabbits) in the Americas, but is generally harmless to these rabbits. It was purposely introduced into such places as Europe and Australia to reduce numbers of wild European rabbits. The virus can spread from these wild sources and cause disease in any breed of pet rabbit.

There are many strains of the myxoma virus, some of which are more severe and fatal than others. For example, the Californian myxoma virus in the Pacific states of the U.S. and the Baja Peninsula in Mexico is particularly deadly, estimated to kill over 99% of rabbits it infects. There are similarly severe strains in Europe and Australia, but also weaker strains with death rates around or below 50%.

How is Myxomatosis Transmitted?

• Bites by blood-sucking insects (e.g., mosquitoes, fleas, flies, fur mites)
• Direct contact with an infected rabbit
• Contact with material contaminated by an infected rabbit (e.g., food, bedding, water bottles)

What are the Signs of Myxomatosis?

1. Reddened eyelids and eyes
2. Discharge (may be milky) from the nose and eyes
3. Swollen eyelids, nose, lips, ears, face, anal/genital region
4. Skin nodules or lumps
5. Drooping ears
6. Purple spots on the skin
7. Lethargy
8. Fever
9. Reduced appetite
10. Weight loss
11. Trouble breathing
12. Convulsions
13. Coma
14. Death

Note: While some rabbits may show obvious and severe signs of illness, other rabbits may show only minor or even no symptoms, but could still die.

How is Myxomatosis Diagnosed?

• Clinical signs
• Lab tests, which include:
  • Examining affected tissues under microscope
  • Detecting myxoma virus in biopsies or swabs from eyes/nose

How is Myxomatosis Treated?

Because myxomatosis tends to be a severe and fatal disease, veterinarians will often recommend euthanasia of a sick rabbit. In some situations attempts may be made to treat the patient, but unfortunately these efforts are rarely successful. 

Treatment may consist of:

1. Keeping rabbits warm
2. Assisted feeding
3. Intravenous fluids (fluids administered through the blood)
4. Antibiotics to treat secondary infections
5. Pain relievers
6. Isolating the sick rabbit from other rabbits

The rabbit’s progression of symptoms, response to treatment and quality of life will all be monitored and play a role in decisions to continue treatment or euthanize.

How can Myxomatosis be Prevented?

• Vaccines are available in some countries (not in the U.S.); 100% protection is not guaranteed
• Quarantine new rabbits
• Prevent contact between pet rabbit and insects/wild rabbits by:
  1. Keeping pet rabbit inside
  2. Using insect screens in outdoor rabbit enclosures
• Isolate rabbits suspected or confirmed to have myxomatosis

Hedgehog Personality

Hedgehogs are small animals, but a large addition to the household.  Not only do they have large personalities, but also they require a lot of care, more than your average dog or cat.  Hedgehogs that are acquired when young may be very social if handled regularly and gently, but some never adjust to handling and are shy and skittish their entire lives.  Many adults may be nervous when handled, ball up and hiss, or hide. 

As a rule, hedgehogs rarely bite. They are nocturnal, so expect them to be a tad bit grumpy during daylight hours, but up and ready to rumble overnight. Plan to keep them in an area where they do not keep the entire family up at night!

Some hedgehogs do something known as “anting,” where they find something new in the environment, “taste” it, and then begin to hypersalivate, creating a foam. They promptly then paste this spit all over themselves. This is a normal behavior, and nothing of concern – just a hedgehog way of checking out their surroundings! When loose in the house, hedgehogs often hide in corners, under furniture, and spend time foraging for spiders and insects in the house. They may be somewhat destructive, digging in carpets, household plants, and rummaging around in areas where you’d prefer not to have a hedgehog rumbling about!

Housing

Hedgehogs are not particularly social creatures, and generally prefer to be housed alone rather than with other hedgehogs, so a separate enclosure for each hedgehog is recommended. They are not strong climbers, but may scale wire and then fall and hurt themselves, so smooth-sided containers with lots of ventilation are recommended. Many people are able to build suitable caging, but be sure that it is large (at least 2 feet by 3 feet per hedgehog), easy to clean, and has lots of healthy air flow through it. As a rule, hedgies prefer quiet, dark environments and are easily startled if housed in areas with bright light and loud noises, such as in a laundry room. Most hedgehogs aren’t big believers in litter pans, so expect to do a lot of cleaning. Bedding such as recycled paper products work well and are easy to spot clean as well as change out regularly.

One commonly overlooked fact is that hedgehogs do best in warm environments and should be kept between 75-85°F (24-30°C).  In most households, supplemental heat in the form of a heat lamp or chew-proof heating pad must be provided.

Hedgehogs like to have toys and will readily use boxes, side-turned flower pots, tubes to explore, exercise wheels with solid floors, and warm shallow tubs for swimming. Many hedgehogs will entertain themselves for hours if provided insects in their cage to hunt, such as live crickets, dubia roaches, and mealworms are valuable dietary additions plus sources of exercise and stimulation.

Feeding

One of the most frequent health problems we see in hedgehogs is obesity; many animals simply get too much food and too little exercise. Often, they are also fed an incorrect diet. Many commercial foods on the market have little to no science to substantiate them as a good food. Hedgehogs are insectivores, not carnivores, so feeding something like dog or cat food really is not appropriate as a sole diet. 

We would like them to have a diet that is high in protein and low in fat, and recommend offering the majority of the food in the evening only when the hedgehog is most active. Leaving food available all day encourages snacking and weight gain. An ideal diet mix for one day would include something along the lines of 2 heaping teaspoons of a bird of prey diet or a commercial insectivore diet, a teaspoon of low-fat high-quality cat food, a teaspoon of mixed vegetables, and 6-8 insects (include a variety of crickets, dubia roaches, phoenix worms, and mealworms).

Avoid high sugar items such as carrots, apples, bananas, raisins, and so on, and concentrate on dark green nutritious vegetables. There is a possibility, although not proven, that raisins or grapes may contribute to kidney injury. Likewise, insects should be fed as a variety and not just limited to crickets and mealworms, or whatever the local pet store carries all the time. Much of hedgehog food may need to be special ordered, as it often is not readily available.

Routine Home Care 

Hedgehog toenails grow quite rapidly, and they should be trimmed at least once per month.  Also, they are prone to dental disease, particularly if they are fed sweet or sugary fruits or treats; regular tooth brushing can help keep the teeth healthy and minimize the amount of professional cleaning required.  The other critical things to watch for at home that can help minimize or prevent a lot of health problems is maintaining a healthy diet, preventing obesity, being sure that the bedding remains clean and dry, and maintaining a heated environment year round to help prevent chilling.

Health Problems

Unfortunately, hedgehogs do not tend to be particularly long lived; although they have been reported to live 6-10 years in captivity, in reality most do not survive much past 3 years. They are also prone to a large number of health problems, the most notable ones being cancer and neurologic problems (Wobbly Hedgehog Syndrome). Many of the other routine diseases we see, such as obesity, dental disease, trauma, and pneumonia can largely be prevented with good husbandry care at home.

Be sure to do your homework before bringing a hedgehog into your home. If the hedgehog is not quite right for you, keep looking around to find a small mammal that is.

They have excellent hearing and a good sense of smell but unfortunately have poor eyesight, and therefore are prone to falling if left unattended in areas with ledges.

Mice are largely nocturnal and are often swift-moving creatures, which makes them inappropriate pets for most small children. Additionally, they may jump quickly and without warning. Daily handling is important from a stimulation standpoint and will help to tame them and make them more friendly. 

The average life expectancy for the pet mouse is approximately 18 to 24 months. Unfortunately, as a prey species, they tend to hide illnesses. Often, by the time any trouble is apparent to you, it’s probably been going on for a while. Because of this, most mice are already significantly ill when they get to a veterinarian.

Housing

Cages should be large and well-ventilated. Wire caging with narrow bars allows for good ventilation and helps prevent escape. Many people choose aquariums for no-escape safety reasons, and these must have wire mesh tops to allow for good ventilation. A single mouse should be housed in nothing smaller than a 15-gallon tank, but a 20-gallon tank would be an appropriate size for two mice.

The bedding should be deep and absorbent but not made from wood-based materials and unscented only. Recycled paper bedding is ideal. Scooping out waste materials daily and changing the entire cage weekly will help keep the environment healthy and minimize odors.

Mice prefer sleeping in secluded areas. They enjoy nesting in plastic hideaways or flowerpots laid on their sides. They will often take treasured items into their sleeping or nesting areas. Torn paper towels are often prized bedding material and it’s inexpensive to replace when it becomes soiled.

Diet and Enrichment

Commercial pelted rodent block is an appropriate diet and can be supplemented with small amounts of healthy people foods. It is wise to avoid high-fat extras such as seeds and large amounts of nuts. Introduce all foods slowly to avoid diarrhea. 

Playful and intelligent, mice like enrichment. Enrichment items are things that help mentally and physically stimulate animals and may mimic things in their natural environment. A well-outfitted mouse home includes numerous items for play and enrichment, such as a solid wheel (wire wheels can cause legs to break), an enclosed sleeping box, chew toys, and climbing toys. Toilet tissue rolls, sisal rope climbs, and cornstarch baths are favorites. Chew toys such as wood from apple trees and dog rawhides are popular.

Health Conditions

New mice should be quarantined for an extended period, even as long as four weeks, before integrating into an otherwise healthy group.

Skin diseases are common in mice and can have several underlying causes. One of the more common includes bite wounds from cage mates. Taking care of the underlying reason for the squabble will usually end this behavior. This problem may require separating the mice, providing a larger enclosure, or neutering the mice. Most commonly, infections of these wounds occur secondary to Staphylococcus species. The wounds are generally treated with antibiotics and pain medication. However, these wounds can occasionally abscess and become chronic problems that require surgery.

In groups of mice, barbering of fur is common. Affected animals show bare patches of fur although the underlying skin looks normal. Barbering appears to have hierarchal indications within the group and removing the barber often results in resolving the symptoms in the barbered mouse. Some controversy exists as to whether it is the dominant mouse being barbered or doing the barbering.

Mite infestation is another common problem. These parasites can result in the mouse scratching itself and causing severe skin irritation on the head, neck, or shoulder area. Skin scrapings can diagnose the mites and your veterinarian may see the mites on the fur. The mite’s entire life cycle is completed on the mouse, but transmission between animals is common and reinfection happens. Medical treatment, in addition to addressing any secondary bacterial infection, is generally curative.

Occasionally, a mouse appears to scratch severely for no obvious reason. This has been referred to as obsessive-compulsive itching disorder in mice. Vitamin A supplementation can help in addition to controlling any secondary bacterial infections. Ringtail is most commonly associated with low humidity conditions in young animals resulting in constrictions around the tail. In severe cases, tail amputation is often indicated.

Pneumonia frequently happens in mice as well and is often caused by a bacterial infection. Signs include upper respiratory signs such as sniffling and sneezing, and lower respiratory tract signs including labored and noisy breathing. Signs of overall illness include squinting, red-brown tears, and a rough coat. Some cases may also have neurologic signs including a head tilt.

This disease is very contagious and similar to rats with mycoplasmosis. Mice may be carriers of mycoplasmosis and yet be asymptomatic, which means that all mice in contact that show respiratory disease should be considered infected.

In addition to medical therapy, replacing their bedding daily with material unlikely to irritate the respiratory tract such as unscented recycled paper bedding can reduce clinical signs of respiratory conditions. Unfortunately, mycoplasmosis is a common and severe disease that often leads to death in pet mice.

Mammary adenocarcinomas occur in mice and can be found anywhere on the body due to the large amount of mammary tissue in mice. Unfortunately, these are more aggressive than those in rats and although they can be surgically removed, they do have a more significant amount of local tissue invasion as well as a likelihood of spreading to the lung.

Lymphosarcoma is also a common cause of tumors. Chemotherapy tends to work, but a remission time of weeks is considered a reasonable expectation.

Lastly, benign respiratory adenomas are seen in some strains of mice and older animals. White lesions may be observed on the surface of the lungs that can be large enough to show up on X-rays or other imaging.

Since mice are commonly used as models in research, much information is readily available about the cancer tendencies of this species. Unfortunately, much less information is available about the treatment options for an individual mouse.

Summary

Mice can make excellent pets for older children through adults and are affectionate, curious, and energetic pets although mostly nocturnal. Just like other pets, they have specific diet, enrichment, and housing needs that must be met for them to be happy and healthy. Talk to your veterinarian any time you have general wellness or medical concerns with your mice.

Anatomy

First let’s look at the anatomy and function of some vital areas in order to understand what does and does not contribute to head tilt in the rabbit.

External Ear

Disease in this area alone can cause head shaking, drooping ear and pain but does not cause a persistent head tilt or loss of balance. 

Middle Ear

Disease of the middle ear can cause head shaking, drooping ear and pain as well as deafness but does not cause a persistent head tilt. 

Inner Ear

The inner ear controls balance and hearing.  Signs of disease of the inner ear include deafness, head tilt, loss of balance and horizontal or rotary nystagmus. Proprioception (the ability to sense where the feet and legs are) and postural reactions (the ability to try to return to a normal standing position) are normal.  The rabbit will not act weak in other parts of the body and will continue to try to maintain normal body position even if it is difficult and the head is tilted. 

Brain

A specific area of the brain stem contains the vestibular nuclei, the origin of the vestibular nerve in the inner ear. The vestibular nuclei serve as the body’s central balance control. Signs of disease to this tiny area of the brain stem include head tilt, loss of balance, circling toward the affected side, rolling, vertical nystagmus, positional nystagmus, delayed or absent proprioception and loss of postural reactions.

Spinal cord

Head tilt is not a sign of primary spinal cord disease. 

Diseases Resulting in Head Tilt

A major differentiation that has to be made when diagnosing the cause of head tilts is whether it is peripheral (affecting areas other than the brain) or central (involving the brain and most specifically the vestibular nuclei).

Otitis Interna (Inflammation of the inner ear)

Causes can include the following: infectious disease, foreign bodies, trauma, neoplasia, and toxins. Signs of otitis interna include persistent head tilt toward the affected side, circling, nystagmus, ataxia (inability to walk normally), and deafness. The most accurate way to diagnose otitis interna is with a CT scan or MRI. A negative finding on an x-ray may not rule out otitis interna. 

Treatment for otitis interna depends on the primary cause, but since the majority of head tilts in rabbits are likely caused by bacterial otitis interna, it is advantageous to use a long-term course of antibiotics (3 to 6 weeks up to several months).  It is currently recommended to avoid the use of corticosteroids in rabbits. Rabbits may be more sensitive than other animals to developing immunosuppression when taking corticosteroids, either topically, orally or parenterally.

Otitis Media (Inflammation of the middle ear)

This is also a common disease of rabbits and may occur along with or even be the cause of otitis interna.  However, disease in this area alone does not cause a persistent head tilt.  Signs of otitis media include periodic head tilting and shaking. Diagnosis and treatment are generally the same as for otitis interna. 

Brain Stem Disease

Disease at the brain stem, specifically the vestibular nuclei, can cause similar signs as seen with inner ear disease.  Because the vestibular nuclei are deep in the brain, it is likely that disease affecting this area will also affect surrounding brain tissue.  Therefore, additional neurologic signs may be seen such as loss of appetite, mental dullness, paralysis and sudden death.  If the disease is also affecting the cerebrum, additional signs such as seizures can be seen. Bacteria, fungi and viruses can affect the brain stem.

Encephalitozoon cuniculi is a one-celled organism called a microsporidium that can infect rabbits. There is an ongoing controversy over the prevalence of E. cuniculi as a cause of primary head tilt in the rabbit.  It has been extremely difficult to demonstrate a definitive correlation between head tilt and active E. cuniculi infection.  Serological testing for E. cuniculi has some value but is not definitive and, if not interpreted appropriately may be misleading.  The only way to diagnose E. cuniculi as the definitive cause of a head tilt is to take brain tissue samples from the rabbit and find the organism and its damage in the microscopic samples.  No one has yet proven this correlation because a brain biopsy is dangerous for the rabbit and the E. cuniculi organism can be difficult to find in brain tissue. There are few, if any, case reports or studies definitely proving E. cuniculi is a significant pathogen in the rabbit nervous system. If a rabbit shows signs compatible with central vestibular disease, has a positive test for E. cuniculi, and all other diseases have been ruled out, some veterinarians will choose to treat for E. cuniculi empirically.  Proper and effective treatment for E. cuniculi is controversial. Some of the medications that have had been used to treat infection with E. cuniculi include albendazole, fenbendazole and oxibendazole.

The most common parasite associated with head tilt in a rabbit is the raccoon roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis.  Signs observed in rabbits with Baylisascaris may include head tilt, tremors, weakness, blindness, seizures or sudden death. Prevention of exposure to the parasite eggs is clearly the best way to counteract this disease.

Other causes of head tilt in rabbits may include cerebrovascular accident (stroke), cancer, trauma, toxins, metabolic disease, and heat stroke.

Diagnostic Approach to Head Tilt

History

A detailed history is of vital importance to determine the cause of disease. 

1. History of any prior illness
2. History any prior bouts with head tilt, weakness or incontinence
3. Possibility of exposure to environmental toxins or parasites
4. Exposure to other rabbits that are or were ill (particularly with neurological disease)
5. Possibility of trauma
6. Possible contact with human with active herpes viral infection

Physical Exam

A thorough physical exam and a thorough neurological exam is essential to diagnosing the cause of head tilt.

1. Mental attitude: Is the rabbit still alert and active, or dull and depressed?
2. Head tilt:  Look at persistence, side to which rabbit tilts, is circling involved?
3. Balance:  Does the rabbit try to right itself if given support?
4. Gait:  Any abnormalities in gait?
5. Nystagmus: If present, is it spontaneous or positional, is it horizontal or vertical?
6. Ear exam:  Are there signs of external or tympanic membrane disease?  Are there signs of fluid, blood or pus beyond the tympanic membrane?
7. Respiratory:  Are there signs of respiratory disease?
8. Systemic: Any other neurological signs, weakness (particularly hind limb), paralysis, incontinence, behavioral changes, external signs of trauma, particularly around the head and neck?   

Blood Tests

• Complete Blood Cell Count:  This test may be helpful to determine if there is anemia or infection.  
• Serum biochemistries:  These tests are helpful to rule in or out a number of metabolic diseases
• Serology for E. cuniculi – These tests are of limited use in definitively diagnosing active disease.
• Blood testing for heavy metals – These tests are particularly important if heavy metal intoxication is suspected.

Bacterial Cultures

Unfortunately, it is frequently not possible to safely or easily collect a sample to culture from a rabbit with vestibular disease.

Endoscopy

Endoscopy of the ear canal may be useful if middle ear infection is present, or possibly used to obtain cultures through the tympanic membrane with a surgical technique called myringotomy. 

Radiographs (X-rays)

Radiographs are useful to detect any heavy metal in the GI tract and for diagnosing head trauma.  Radiographs are also helpful in screening for disease of the tympanic bulla where the middle ear is housed

CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) Analysis

This may be useful if central disease such as encephalitis is suspected.

Biopsy

If it is possible to obtain a sample of the affected tissue, then a microscopic analysis can be extremely helpful in making a diagnosis.

CT scan or MRI

These imaging techniques are the most accurate and safest means of diagnosing disease of the inner and middle ear.

Treatment and Nursing Care

1. If a definitive diagnosis of the cause cannot be made (very common situation), but peripheral disease is the suspected due to physical exam, history and whatever diagnostics could be performed, the rabbit should be put on a course of broad spectrum antibiotics for an extended period of time ranging from 3 weeks to several months.
   
2. Generally, corticosteroids (cortisone-like drugs) should be avoided if possible, because rabbits may be especially sensitive to the immunosuppressive qualities of these drugs, and their use may cause further complications. 
   
3. If a diagnosis of E. cuniculi infection is strongly suspected based on multiple signs of central disease, serology, and ruling out other disease,  a short-term use of oxibendazole,  fenbendazole, or albendazole, can be considered. 
   
4. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs should be considered to reduce inflammation and control pain that may be present.  These drugs may be needed only at the beginning of therapy.
   
5. The use of anti-nausea drugs is controversial as there is no clear evidence that rabbits experience feelings of nausea.  There is no substantiated evidence that the use of anti-nausea drugs helps improve the condition of rabbits with head tilt.  Some veterinarians feel anti-nausea drugs, like diphenhydramine or meclizine, are useful in a rolling rabbit or one who is not eating.
   
6. Eye lubrication is useful, particularly in those animals that have a severe head tilt.  The down eye is prone to injury due to the protruding nature of rabbit eyes.  Rabbits do not blink often and this eye may become dry, abraded or infected.  Daily attention is necessary.
   
7. Fluid therapy and nutritional therapy (assisted feeding) may be necessary in any rabbit with vestibular disease.
   
8. Rabbits with vestibular disease from any cause often cannot access their cecotropes.  These nutrient-rich droppings can be collected while still moist and placed in a rabbit’s food bowl along with the pelleted food. 
   
9. It is essential to modify the environment of a rabbit with severe vestibular disease. This involves providing an enclosed padded or smooth-sided cage or enclosure. 
   
10. Aside from occasional anecdotal reports or testimonials, there is no evidence that any kind of physiotherapy or acupuncture will reduce the length of time a head tilt persists or will resolve a residual head tilt.
    
11. It is important to remember that the course of vestibular disease, even with the best prognosis, can take many weeks to months of committed care before improvement is seen. 
    
12. If a rabbit shows a continual decline or continued mental depression, loss of appetite or other weakness over a 2 to 3 week period, then the prognostic outlook is fairly grim and euthanasia should be a consideration. 

Prognosis

The prognosis for recovery from vestibular disease is variable, depending on the cause.  For most rabbits with peripheral disease, the prognosis is good to guarded. Some rabbits will have a lifelong residual head tilt even if the inner ear disease is cured. For rabbits with central vestibular disease the prognosis becomes guarded to poor for recovery to a sustainable state.

Key Points

1. Persistent head tilts accompanied by nystagmus and loss of balance are either peripheral (inner ear) or central (vestibular nuclei of brain).  
   
2. Peripheral vestibular disease is probably the most common cause of head tilt and is usually confined to head tilt, spontaneous nystagmus, circling and loss of balance.  The majority of cases are still mentally alert, maintain an appetite and do not exhibit other signs of weakness, gait abnormalities or seizures.
   
3. Peripheral vestibular disease is most commonly caused by inflammatory disease of the inner ear with bacterial disease being the most common.  There is no current evidence that E. cuniculi causes disease of the inner ear.
   
4. Peripheral vestibular disease carries a good to guarded prognosis for clinical recovery.  There is often a residual head tilt, but the rabbit can learn to re-establish balance and live a relatively normal life. 
   
5. Central vestibular disease is less common, and also includes head tilt, positional nystagmus, circling and loss of balance. 
   
6. Rabbits with central vestibular disease may also have histories of other signs compatible with central disease, potential exposure to toxins, parasites, or trauma.
   
7. Central vestibular disease may be caused by a variety of conditions including bacterial infections, E. cuniculi, parasites and trauma, and carries a guarded to poor prognosis for recovery. 
   
8. Radiographs are necessary to rule out trauma and may detect middle ear disease.  However, in many cases there will be no radiographic change even in middle or inner ear disease. Therefore, a negative x-ray is not proof that this disease does not exist.
   
9. CT scan or MRI is the most accurate and safe means of detecting inner ear disease as well as some types of central disease.
   
10. It is probably best at the minimum to treat rabbits with strictly peripheral signs that are confined exclusively to head tilt, nystagmus, circling and loss of balance with appropriate antibiotics because bacterial disease of the inner ear is common.
    
11. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs should also be considered in many head tilt cases to reduce inflammation (since inflammatory disease is so common in both peripheral and central disease) and reduce any pain. 
    
12. Appropriate nursing care for a rabbit with vestibular disease is crucial and requires a long-term commitment to both environmental and patient management.
    
13. The sooner you get veterinary care for a rabbit with vestibular disease, the greater the chances for successful resolution with a relatively short recuperative period.

What Is a Biopsy?

A biopsy is the removal and/or examination of cells or tissue from the body to figure out a disease’s presence, cause, or extent.

Benefits of Histopathology

Histopathology can be a powerful diagnostic tool. There are many diseases that cause vague and nonspecific clinical signs. The results of histopathology can help your veterinarian know the specific disease your pet is suffering from and the required treatment.

In some cases, histopathology is the only way to find out for sure what condition your pet may have. Many diseases require histopathology to be confirmed. Some of these are various inflammatory, congenital (a condition existing from birth), and cancerous diseases.

Examples of inflammatory diseases that require histopathology to be diagnosed include inflammatory bowel disease, glomerulonephritis (inflammation of the glomeruli, which are part of the kidneys), and hepatitis (inflammation of the liver).

Unusual or severe skin abnormalities are instances when your veterinarian may initially recommend histopathology when making a diagnosis. Histopathology can be useful in a pet who isn’t displaying obvious signs of sickness. Some veterinarians may recommend taking biopsies of masses based on their size, location, duration, appearance, or if seemingly painful.  

Cancer is a type of disease that often requires histopathology for diagnosis. Histopathology is often needed to correctly identify the mass as cancerous or not. This identification is important for detecting your pet’s cancer and deciding the best treatment plan.

Biopsy Procedure

A tissue biopsy is obtained by removing a small piece of tissue. How that tissue is taken depends on the type of tissue and where that tissue is located.

Some methods of obtaining a biopsy do not require invasive surgery. Your pet may only need local anesthesia (numbing the area) and sedation in these cases. For example some skin lesions are often investigated with a simple skin punch biopsy.

Other biopsy methods may require general anesthesia, where your pet is “put under” and unconscious for the procedure. This option is usually for larger superficial masses or internal biopsies, like those of the intestines, and may involve the use of an endoscope (a small camera on a long flexible wand to see within the body) or exploratory surgery, where a body cavity like the chest or abdomen is opened to look for masses or other abnormalities. 

Your veterinarian will explain how they will get a biopsy sample and decide whether your pet is stable enough to undergo general anesthesia if needed. Depending on the procedure, your veterinarian may also refer you to a veterinary specialist to obtain the biopsy and to help recommend further treatment.

Once a biopsy is obtained, it is sent out to a pathologist. A veterinary pathologist will examine or “read,” the tissue sample and report their findings. In most cases, the biopsy sample will take some time to ship to a laboratory and to be evaluated. Your veterinarian will give you an estimate of when to expect results. 

Recovery

Your pet will have a wound where the tissue was removed and may have stitches. Your veterinarian should provide you with post-surgical instructions and may provide pain relief medications as needed.

The biopsy site needs to be kept clean and dry; your pet should not be able to lick it or irritate the wound. Your veterinarian may recommend an Elizabethan collar (cone) to help prevent your pet from touching it. If you have questions at any time about how your pet is healing, always contact your veterinarian.

Limitations of Histopathology

While histopathology can provide valuable information, it has limitations too. It helps your vet to find the diagnosis most of the time. Errors can happen when tissue sampling is not good enough (e.g., the biopsy was not representative of the affected area) or if there is a lack of clinical history. Your veterinarian can prevent many of these errors by collecting and handling the tissue appropriately and working closely with the pathologist.

Your veterinarian may request a second opinion on the biopsy if the results come back inconclusive or are unexpected, and they may recommend repeating a biopsy. Depending on the disease, more specialized lab tests may be needed, including genetic and immunology testing.

Histopathology is not always needed or recommended. It should only be pursued if your pet is stable enough to undergo the procedure needed to obtain the biopsy, if the results will affect the treatment plan, and if you are willing to pursue treatment.

If your veterinarian has a high suspicion for a specific disease, they may recommend treatment without a definitive diagnosis. This can resolve your pet’s problem without the need for a biopsy. However, a biopsy may be needed if your pet does not respond well to the treatment.

Not all lumps and bumps require histopathology; some may be able to be diagnosed with a less invasive test called cytology, which involves taking cells from a mass or affected organ with a needle (a fine needle biopsy), a sample of a body fluid, or a washing, brushing, scraping or swab collection. If there is low suspicion for disease, your pet is not showing discomfort associated with an abnormality, or a mass is small, your veterinarian may recommend cautious monitoring.

Results of Histopathology

Your veterinarian will let you know when your pet’s histopathology report comes back from the pathologist, and will then discuss potential next steps with you. While the results may not always be good news, knowing exactly what is affecting your pet is one step towards ensuring they receive the best treatment and care. Hopefully, with the right information, you can help your pet be as healthy as possible.

Through selective breeding efforts, guinea pigs are found in an array of colors and coat types from which to choose. Four primary varieties are commonly encountered in the pet industry. The Shorthair or English is characterized by having a uniformly short hair coat. The Abyssinian has whorls or rosettes in their short, rough, wiry coat. The Silky is a large variety distinguished by its medium length silky hair. The Peruvian is recognized by its long, silky hair. All types are commonly kept as pets.

Guinea pigs generally live about five to seven years. Larger than other rodents, the adult average weight ranges from 900 to 1200 grams (2 to 2.6 pounds).

Diet

 Good quality grass hay should be available at ALL times, and should compose at least 80 percent of the guinea pig’s diet. Any grass hay is sufficient, including timothy, orchard grass brome and others.  Many guinea pigs prefer one variety of grass hay over others.  Avoid the use of alfalfa, which is not a grass but rather a legume (like peas and beans) and is generally too high in calories (which can lead to a tubby little pig) and calcium for the average pet guinea pig’s dietary needs.  Excess dietary calcium can predispose to bladder stones.  Alfalfa hay, can however, be used with nursing or young growing guinea pigs for the time in which their nutritional needs are higher.  Grasses also provide a variety of nutrients as well as indigestible fiber, which keeps the intestinal tract moving along at a normal speed, and digestible fiber that is used by the bacteria in the large cecum to produce such things as vitamin B and amino acids, which are used by the guinea pig.  Guinea pigs with a high fibre intake are much more resistant to gastrointestinal upset.

Like primates (including humans), guinea pigs do not produce their own vitamin C.  Vitamin C deficiency leads to scurvy, the symptoms of which include poor appetite, swollen, painful joints and ribs, reluctance to move, poor bone and teeth development, and spontaneous bleeding especially from the gums, into joints, and in muscle. If left untreated, this disease can be fatal especially to rapidly growing young and pregnant females. In addition, subclinical deficiencies often predispose animals to other diseases.

Fortunately it is easy to provide your guinea pig with adequate vitamin C through food, aiming to give between 10 and 25 mg (0.35 to 0.88 oz) vitamin C daily.  The following chart gives examples of the quantity of various required to meet maintenance. 

The volumes listed in this table are given as grams because of the small sizes.

Food source	Mg of vitamin C per 100 gram food source	Grams of food source required for:
		Maintenance @ 25 mg/day (0.88 oz)	Stressed (sick or pregnant) @ 50 mg/day (1.76 oz)	Vitamin C Deficient @ 100 mg/day (3.5 oz)
Parsley	131.9	18.95	37.9	75.8
Kale	120	20.83	41.67	83.33
Kiwifruit	95	26.32	52.63	105.26
Broccoli	90.5	30.54	61.07	122.14
Brussel sprouts	86	29.08	58.17	116.34
Peas (podded)	59.54	41.98	83.97	167.95
Strawberries	59.2	42.17	84.33	168.66
Oranges	53.9	46.38	92.76	185.51
Pineapple	47.8	52.3	104.6	209.21
Chinese cabbage (pak choi)	45	55.6	111.21	222.41
Peas (green)	41.2	60.73	121.46	242.91
Beet greens	30.3	82.48	164.96	329.91
Mango	28.4	88.03	176.06	352.11
Spinach	28.4	87.97	175.94	351.88
Coriander leaves	27.3	91.57	183.13	366.27
Raspberries	26.5	94.25	188.49	376.98
Lettuce (cos)	23.9	104.45	208.92	417.85
Blackberries	21.2	117.83	235.66	471.31
Turnip	20.8	120	240	480
Basil – fresh	18.2	137.29	274.58	549.17
Melon (honeydew)	17.9	140	280	560
Squash (zucchini)	17.85	140.08	280.15	560.3
Parsnip	17.46	143.17	286.34	527.69
Radish	14.7	170.27	340.54	681.08
Cranberries	13.1	190.31	380.62	761.25
Tomatoes	12.6	198.3	396.6	793.2
Beans – snap	12.3	203.05	406.09	812.18
Grapes	11.2	222.93	445.86	891.72
Blueberries	9.4	264.71	529.41	1058.82
Plums	9.4	265.7	531.4	1062.8
Pumpkin	9.1	274.57	549.13	1098.27
Bananas	8.9	280.61	561.22	1122.45
Watermelon	8.2	305.56	611.11	1222.22
Alfalfa	8	301.12	602.24	1204.48
Cherries (sweet)	6.9	360.36	720.72	1441.44
Corn	6.6	379.75	759.49	1518.99
Peaches	6.5	384.62	769.23	1538.46
Carrots	6	416.67	833.33	1666.67
Asparagus	5.6	446.43	892.86	1785.71
Nectarine	5.3	467.48	934.96	1869.92
Apples with skin	5	533.71	1067.42	2134.83
Pears	4.2	590.28	1180.56	2361.11
Bean – Fava (in pod)	3.8	654.76	1309.52	2619.047
Celery	3.1	811.86	1623.71	3247.42
Lettuce (Iceburg)	2.8	887.5	1775	3550
Cucumber	2.3	895.72	1791.44	3582.89

The total amount of fresh foods given in a day should be around one-quarter to one-half cup (torn or shredded and packed in the measuring container), so the above chart should be used to select foods with concentrated vitamin C.  When testing out new fresh foods, add one every three to four days to allow the intestinal tract to adjust and give a fair trial to see if the guinea pig will eat it.

Guinea pig pellets can be given to your pet in limited quantities.  Please use guinea pig pellets, which have additional vitamin C, and not rabbit pellets.  Read the label and use a brand that is grass-hay based and not alfalfa based, if at all possible.   Also look at the date that the food was produced and try to buy food that is no more than 3 months (90 days) past that date.  If the food is too old, the vitamin C levels will have decreased dramatically. Watch your little friend’s weight carefully and adjust the pellet amounts downward if there is too much weight gain.

Food is not just something we put in our bodies for nutrients, but it is also an environmental enrichment. The sight, smell, taste, and texture of food is mentally stimulating to all animals. Even the sound of the food preparation provides a joyful anticipation.  Many a guinea pig care provider knows the sound of a guinea pig squealing with delight whenever the refrigerator door opens!  Try putting the hay or fresh food in places such as hidden in little crumpled bits of paper, empty toilet paper or sections of paper towel rolls or non-toxic baskets just for fun!  Try putting pellets in a small hollow plastic ball with small holes drilled in the side that are slightly larger than a pellet; as the pig rolls it around with his nose, he will get to eat in the process! The hay can be provided in a hay feeder or put in the corner of the cage.  Even better, put it in an “edible” basket or cardboard box for more fun!

Foods to completely avoid are the high starch foods such as peas, beans, corn, nuts, cakes, cookies, cereal, grains, breads, and so on.  These foods can create a serious imbalance in the normal bacteria in the intestinal tract and lead to potentially fatal disease.  Although very small amounts of these foods can tolerated, guinea pigs can get “addicted” to them to the point they don’t want to eat healthier foods.  Therefore, it is best to just avoid them all together.

And let us not forget water, which is vital to good health.  Fresh, clean water should always be available either in a sipper bottle or a heavy crock that prevents spillage.  Guinea pigs like to play with their water bottles, so make sure you check the bedding under the bottle for moisture and change it frequently.  Sipper bottles will need to have the nipple regularly checked for adequate function, and cleaned to ensure good hygiene.  Do not add any medications or vitamins to the water as it will change the taste and your guinea pig may not drink as much.  Not drinking enough water can lead to chronic dehydration and potentially diseases such as kidney disease and kidney or bladder stones.

Diseases

Bacterial Enteritis

A veterinarian may elect to use aggressive antibiotic therapy and supportive care to treat this condition. A bacterial culture of the patient’s stool with antibiotic sensitivity will greatly assist the veterinarian in choosing an appropriate antibiotic.

Bacterial Pododermatitis (Bumblefoot)

Severe footpad infections are common among guinea pigs housed on poor substrate, especially cages with wire flooring. Poor hygiene, including fecal soiling, makes the problem bigger. Symptoms of this condition include swelling of the affected feet, lameness, and reluctance to move. Sometimes the guinea pigs are so used to the chronic pain that they do not seem overly affected but this is not the case. Improved sanitation and better substrate are the initial steps in correcting the problem. In addition, the feet themselves should be treated by a veterinarian. Topical dressing with an and periodic bandaging is often required. Depending on the severity of the damage, oral antibiotics may also be necessary. Pain relief is usually needed. Therapy may have to be carried out for a lengthy period of time to get full recovery. Unfortunately, a consequence of this condition is arthritis.  Severe cases can even have bone infection, which is very serious.

Fur Loss

Fur loss is a common problem in guinea pigs. Hair loss or hair thinning can occur for a number of reasons. It is common among sows with cystic ovarian disease, or those that are repeatedly bred.  Weakened, newly weaned juvenile guinea pigs can also be affected. Fur loss problems are also seen with certain fungal diseases and external parasite infestations. In some groups, barbering (removing hair) of subordinate pigs by dominant ones can happen.

Lice and mites are the most common external parasites of guinea pigs. Mites are microscopic, spider-like organisms that infest the top layers of the skin in affected animals. Mite infestations are usually more severe than lice. A specific mite, Trixacarus cavie, causes serious infestations in pet guinea pigs. This sarcoptic mite lives in the outer layers of skin causing an intense itching and scratching with considerable hair loss. In some cases, they don’t itch or scratch but only have hair loss and crusting of the skin. In other cases, the infestation and irritation is so severe that the pet causes significant self-inflicted wounds, and can even seizure with handling.

A veterinarian can diagnose this mite infestation by performing skin scrapings of affected areas and viewing them under the microscope. There are several treatment options, ranging from pills to injectable to topical medication.  Your veterinarian will prescribe an appropriate one for your situation. In the meantime, if wood shavings are used as bedding or litter, it should be replaced with paper toweling to reduce handling of your pig and make the enclosure soft and comfortable. Ensure adequate vitamin C levels in the diet. Trixacarus cavie mites can be zoonotic. 

Lice are tiny, wingless, flattened insects that live within the hair coats of infested animals. Both adults and eggs are found attached to hair shafts of affected pets. Lice infestations often go unnoticed. However, heavy infestations are usually accompanied with excessive itching, scratching, and some hair loss. Scabbing on or around the ears may also be evident. Guinea pigs are parasitized by two types of biting lice. Both irritate and abrade the skin’s surface and feed off the bodily fluids that exude through the superficial wounds they create.

A veterinarian can confirm the diagnosis of lice infestation by examining the hair coat as well as microscopic examination of hairs from affected animals. Treatment is usually in the form of an insecticidal shampoo that is prescribed by the veterinarian.

Lice transmission occurs through direct contact with infested guinea pigs. Therefore, pet guinea pigs are not likely to have this parasite unless they had previous exposure to lice-infested guinea pigs. For your pet’s sake, be sure that any guinea pig she comes in contact with is healthy, and free of this and other parasites.

Fungal skin disease is common, and is seen as a scaly, furless area that is usually circular.  It can be diagnosed with a fungal culture.  Treatment involves topical and/or oral medication, as well as decontamination of the environment. This condition can affect humans as well. 

Heat Stress (Stroke)

Guinea pigs are quite susceptible to heat stroke, particularly those that are overweight and/or heavily furred. Environmental temperatures above 85⁰F, high humidity above 70 percent, inadequate shade and ventilation, overcrowding, and other stresses are additional predisposing problems.

Signs of heat stroke include panting, slobbering, weakness, reluctance to move, convulsions, and ultimately, death. This is a treatable condition if recognized early. Heat-stressed guinea pigs should be misted with cool (but not cold) water, bathed in cool (again, not cold) water, or have rubbing alcohol applied to its footpads. Once this first aid measure is accomplished, veterinary assistance should be sought.

Prevention of heat stroke involves providing adequate shade and proper ventilation. In addition, a cool misting of water and/or a fan operating over a container of ice can be directed toward the pet’s cage. If indoors, air conditioning during the heat of the summer provides the best relief.

Pneumonia

Pneumonia is one of the most common diseases of pet guinea pigs, and is usually bacterial in origin. Respiratory infections are caused by a number of viral and bacterial agents including Streptococcal pneumoniae, Bordetella bronchiseptica, and a gram-positive diplococcus. Many of the disease-causing organisms inhabit the respiratory tracts of clinically normal guinea pigs. Conditions of stress, inadequate diet, and improper husbandry will often predispose a pet to an opportunistic infection with one or more of these agents. Symptoms of pneumonia may include difficulty breathing (dyspnea), discharge from the nose and eyes, lethargy, and lack of appetite. In some cases, sudden death will occur without any of these signs.

Occasionally, middle or inner ear infections accompany respiratory disease in guinea pigs. Additional symptoms in these cases include incoordination, twisting of the neck (torticollis), circling to one side, and rolling.

Veterinary consultation should be sought when a guinea pig exhibits any of the above symptoms. Diagnostic testing may include radiographs and bacterial culture, depending on the situation. Aggressive antibiotic therapy in addition to supportive care of the patient may be necessary to get the condition under control.

Scurvy (Vitamin C Deficiency)
See diet section above.

Slobbers / Dental Malocclusion

Slobbers is the condition where the fur under the jaw and down the neck remains wet from the constant drooling of saliva. The primary cause for this condition is overgrowth of the guinea pig’s cheek teeth, leading to spurring, tongue entrapment and malalignment.  One likely cause of dental disease is insufficient hay in the diet, leading to insufficient wearing of the teeth, and increase in occlusal pressure and penetration of the tooth roots into the bone.  This results in bowing of the tooth roots, which causes an abnormal angle of growth eventually leading to teeth that grow out of apposition and cause spurring and tongue entrapment. Any condition that results in pain on chewing (vitamin C deficiency, middle ear infection, eye problems are some examples) end up causing tooth elongation and following the above pattern.  Satin pig osteodystrophy is strongly linked to the development of dental disease.  A likely emerging cause of dental pathology is rickets, or vitamin D deficiency, in pigs kept predominantly indoors.  Softening of the bones causes inappropriate wearing of the teeth, again leading to the above mentioned problems.

A veterinarian must be consulted as soon as this condition is suspected. The diagnosis is confirmed by visual examination of the mouth, although sometimes sedation to examine the teeth fully is required. Radiographs are always required to diagnose underlying issues. Correction of the problem involves general anaesthesia to correct the inappropriate length of the teeth, as well as addressing spurring and tongue entrapment issues.  Predisposing causes must always be corrected, and post-operative analgesia is a necessity, as is supportive feeding until the pig is able to eat on its own. 

Many guinea pigs with slobbers are emaciated, have aspiration pneumonia and gut stasis, so are in a very weakened state by the time they see the veterinarian.  The prognosis can be poor in these cases.

There is no permanent solution or correction to this problem. Periodic trimming or filing of the teeth is almost always necessary, and many guinea pigs need to be on constant analgesia. Guinea pigs with this problem should not be bred since dental malocclusion is often hereditary.

Handling

The Guinea pig’s natural curiosity and friendly disposition makes it fairly easy to handle. Most Guinea pigs will approach a hand introduced into their cage and can be easily scooped into the palm of the hand. Usually, cupping one hand under the rump while the other hand cradles the midsection is a good way to pick up guinea pigs safely.  Two hands are recommended so that nothing is left dangling (they’re larger than most of the other pocket pets) and because there is less risk of dropping them. Guinea pigs are quite nose-heavy, and often land on their incisors when dropped. Guinea pigs not accustomed to being handled may jump and run, but are rarely aggressive. However, some guinea pigs will bite when handled.

Housing

Housing accommodations provided for pet guinea pigs are limited only by one’s imagination, ingenuity, and budget. There is no single correct way to house your guinea pig as long as the well-being of your pet is considered. Adequate housing is a major factor in the maintenance of healthy pets.

Guinea pigs can be housed within enclosures made of a variety of materials.  It is important that the flooring is not abrasive, so that the chances of pododermatitis are reduced.  Broken legs are common in guinea pigs that fall through wire mesh and panic to escape. Although solid flooring requires more effort to keep sanitary, it is safer for the guinea pig. Solid floored cages also tend to be more aesthetically pleasing when appropriate bedding is used.

Bedding materials must be clean, non-toxic, absorbent, relatively dust-free, and easy to replace. Acceptable beddings are wood shavings, shredded paper, processed ground corn cob, and commercial pellets. Make sure the ground corn cob is properly processed and stored to reduce fungal spore problems. Cedar shavings have been associated with causing respiratory difficulty and liver disease in some guinea pigs, and thus should not be used. Saw dust should also be avoided since it tends to accumulate within the external genitalia of male guinea pigs, causing an impaction.

Good ventilation is also important, so most cages have wire on the sides and top to allow this.  Wood should not be used due to difficulty in cleaning and susceptibility to destructive gnawing. The design and construction of the enclosure must be escape-proof. In addition, the cage must be free of sharp edges and other potential hazards. The size of the enclosure should allow for normal guinea pig activity. Approximately 100 square inches of floor area per adult guinea pig is recommended. Breeding animals should be provided 180 square inches each. The enclosure can remain opened on the top if the sides are at least 10 inches high (as long as other family pets such as dogs or cats are not a threat).

The environment in the vicinity of the pet’s cage is another important consideration. Because of their sensitive nature, guinea pigs are more comfortable and relaxed when housed in a quiet spot away from noise, excitement, and other such stresses. Also be sure to select a location away from direct sunlight and avoid cold damp areas. Guinea pigs thrive in a dry, cool environment with adequate ventilation. Drastic environmental changes should be prevented (especially high temperatures and humidity). Since they are active at night (nocturnal), guinea pigs require quiet periods of light in order to rest. 

Guinea pigs are social creatures, and derive considerable comfort from being able to lean against each other; this is called being thigmotactic.  Guinea pigs should therefore be kept in groups of at least two. Pigs kept together since youth are likely to live harmoniously, however, guinea pig relationships can deteriorate and sometimes previously harmonious animals may need to be separated.  Castrated males often live well with one or two females although intact males will often fight in the presence of a female.

Reproduction

The actual period in which the sow is receptive to the boar for breeding is approximately eight to fifteen hours during this cycle. Sows often return to ‘heat’ within a few hours after giving birth. This time is known as ‘postpartum estrous’ which means that she can be nursing one litter while being pregnant with another.

Pregnancy lasts between 63 and 70 days. The gestation is shorter with larger litters and longer with small litters. This duration of pregnancy is relatively long when compared to other rodents.

Pregnant sows exhibit a grossly enlarged abdomen during the later stages of pregnancy. Her body weight may actually double during pregnancy. The time of delivery is difficult to assess in guinea pigs due to the relatively long gestation period and lack of nest building by the sow. Within one week prior to delivery, a slight widening of the pelvic area can be noted. If this separation of the pelvis does not occur, then it can cause the delivery problems mentioned previously. Therefore, sows bred past seven months of age require caesarean section for delivery of the young.

An uncomplicated delivery usually takes about one-half hour with an average of five minutes between babies. Litter sizes range between one and six with an average of three to four. First time litters are usually very small. Unfortunately, abortions and stillbirths are not uncommon with guinea pigs.

The young are very well developed at birth. They weigh between 50 and 100 grams (1.75 to 3.5 ounces) and have a full hair coat. Babies are even born with teeth and open eyes. Mothers are not very maternal in the raising of the offspring in that she does not build a nest and even remains in a sitting position while nursing. The young can actually eat solid food and drink from a bowl shortly after birth, and can wean in as little as five days, but it is recommended to allow them to nurse for three weeks before weaning.

Gerbils are friendly and gentle, and are often chosen to be a child’s first pet because they are easy to care for, clean, and awake during the day. They’re social and like to interact with people. They love to play with toys, providing lots of entertainment, especially if there is a group of them. Watching a group snuggle together is wonderfully endearing.

They are intelligent and playful, and in the right situation can be extremely affectionate pets. Compared to other rodents, they have a minimal odor.

Gerbils will dig, play, and explore. A cage of multiple gerbils is incredibly entertaining. People who are squeamish about hairless rat and mouse tails, will enjoy the gerbil’s furry tail.

They have a tremendous need to dig, and this must be accommodated for in their housing setup. 

Gerbils are highly social and it is unhealthy to keep one gerbil in solitude for its life. Start out with at least two gerbils that have already been living together, as introducing new gerbils has to be done slowly.

Handling

Train your gerbil to enjoy being picked up and held. Extend your hand, palm up, towards your gerbil so he can climb on. You can encourage by putting a snack, like sunflower seed, on your palm. Be gentle and don’t squeeze: he is a little guy. Close your hands around him so he won’t fall or jump. Gerbils generally don’t bite unless they are scared or hurt, so don’t rush him. When your gerbil feels safe, he will want to spend more time being held. Before he trusts you enough to hold him, you can pick up whatever item he is hiding in, such as a toilet paper tube (often a favorite toy and hidey hole) or jar. Picking him up by the tail is a terrible idea because that will likely result in the need to amputate it.

Gerbils are prey animals and thus easily startled. If one hears a loud noise or other “threat,” they thump their back feet and all the animals will immediately burrow into the bedding.

The more you handle your gerbil, the more affectionate they will be. Gerbils are social creatures and love to explore and play.

Housing

Odor can also be minimized through an appropriate cage. Cages should be quite large and well ventilated. Gerbils are burrowing creatures, and it’s impractical to keep them in something other than an aquarium with a wire or mesh top. Wire caging with narrow bars allows for good ventilation, but can be messy given the significant 2-3 depth of bedding required to accommodate the digging behavior. A single gerbil should be housed in nothing smaller than a 20-gallon tank. Bedding should be deep, absorbent, and unscented, but not made of wood-based materials, which can elevate liver values as well as cause respiratory problems.

Many gerbil owners will provide 6-8 inches of bedding material for digging and tunneling. Recycled paper products, such as Carefresh brand bedding, are ideal. Shredded paper, especially that has been through a shredder, is also good (the shredder makes the paper good for tunneling). Scooping out waste materials daily and changing the entire cage weekly will help to keep the environment healthy as well as to minimize odors. Providing a two-story cage as you’re seeing here will allow for improved ventilation, extra play space, and still accommodate this intense digging desire exhibited by most gerbils. 

Gerbils prefer to have secluded areas in which to sleep, so plastic hideaways or flowerpots laid on their sides are a good idea. They will often take treasured items with them into their nesting or sleeping area. Torn paper towels are prized bedding material, and it is an inexpensive and easy thing to replace if it becomes dirty As playful and intelligent creatures, they need items for environmental enrichment such as solid wheels (not the wire wheels that you often see, which can result in leg fractures), toilet tissue roles for exploration, sisal rope climbs, and cornstarch baths are other favorites.

To clean the cage, remove the gerbils and everything else, wash with warm soapy water, rinse it several times, and let it dry completely before putting in fresh bedding. Clean everything that you return to the cage, such as water bowls and items in which to hide. A scrub brush will help clean the corners.

Chew toys such as wood from edible trees (such as apple trees) or some other natural wood and dog rawhides can also be popular toys. They like to gnaw, and can be destructive when outside the cage if you don’t keep an eye on them. Avoid plastic toys as they may ingest what they chew off. Daily handling is really important, both from a stimulation standpoint and helping to tame them and make them more friendly. The more you handle your gerbil, the friendlier they will be!

Diet

A commercially manufactured rodent block should be the staple of the diet. Avoid commercial diets of seeds, nuts and dried fruits. Gerbils tend to pick out the parts that they like and discard the rest, so the diet becomes unbalanced and thus unhealthy; it’s a bit like people eating only the olives in a green salad.

A rodent block diet can be supplemented with healthy people foods including oats, apples, asparagus, bananas, basil, blueberries, broccoli, carrots, cauliflower, celery, cherries, cranberries, cucumber, grapes, green pepper, kiwi, melon, okra, parsley, pears, peas, red peppers, spinach, squash, and strawberries, as well as small quantities of things like goji berries, unsalted nuts, shredded coconut, Kashi cereal, tofu, and hard-boiled or scrambled eggs.

It is important, however, to remember to avoid high-fat extras such as seeds or a lot of nuts. Introduce all new foods slowly in order to avoid diarrhea. Almost anything is safe to give gerbils in small quantities, but it’s the quantity that tends to get us into trouble. Gerbils are small animals, and a portion for them is actually a very tiny amount.

They need fresh water daily, as the water in fruit is not enough.

Health

In general, an average life expectancy for the pet gerbil is approximately 3 to 4 years. Unfortunately, however, as a prey species, they do tend to hide illnesses, so when it is apparent to the owner in reality that they are sick, they’ve probably not been feeling well for an extended period of time. Most of our patients are significantly ill at the time they first come into the clinic, making both diagnosis and treatment more complicated. In general, however, gerbils are reasonably hearty and healthy animals.

Gerbils average seven litters per year and usually have five babies per litter. Talk to your veterinarian about altering your gerbils or you may end up with 35 offspring in the first year alone. If you don’t wish to have a gerbil altered, consider a couple of groups of gerbils of the same sex. Separating bonded animals by placing them in different cages doesn’t work because if a gerbil can smell or see but not touch its mate, they can become anxious and depressed.

They need regular bathing, at least once a week, in a sand bath. Buy chinchilla sand (not dust) and place some of it in a shallow bowl in the tank and they will bathe themselves. Once referred to as “desert rats,” they do not like to get wet.

Their normal temperature is 98.6 – 101.3°F, and they weigh between 3 and 4.5 ounces.

Epilepsy

One of the most common presenting problems with gerbils is seizures. Gerbils are actually prone to epileptiform seizures, which can range from mild and hypnotic to grand mal. Some animals show symptoms consistent with catalepsy. Most of the episodes are brief and last for only a few seconds to a few minutes and may be initiated by changes in the environment, stress, or handling. Most animals resume normal activity immediately after the episode, and treatment is generally not necessary or even recommended. Some reports indicate that frequent handling of young animals may serve to decrease the frequency or severity of the episodes, and a genetic predisposition is suspected. 

Nasal Dermatitis

Another common presenting problem in the gerbil is a nasal dermatitis. This nasal dermatitis is also known by owners as “sore nose” or sometimes also called facial eczema, and it’s commonly encountered particularly in young adult animals. Affected animals have a facial alopecia surrounding the nares and upper lip with a varying degree of reddish-brown moist dermatitis. The primary cause is suspected to be a chemical irritation of skin by the porphyrin-containing Harderian gland secretions secondary to mechanical trauma caused by burrowing and face rubbing. Replacing the bedding with a nonirritating material, keeping the area clean, applying a topical antibacterial ointment, and reducing stress are the hallmarks of therapy in reducing this problem.

Cancer

Fortunately, compared to many other pet rodents, cancer is not as common in gerbils. Lesions are occasionally seen in older animals over the age of two. The most common concerns include squamous cell carcinoma of the ventral scent glands in males, ovarian granulosa cell tumors of the females, and in both sexes adrenocortical tumors, melanomas, and squamous cell carcinomas. Although not malignant, cystic ovaries are reasonably common, and can easily present with symptoms that may lead the veterinarian to suspect neoplasia.

Tail lesions are commonly seen in gerbils, especially those that are handled in family situations with young children. They typically occur after an injury. Rough handling can readily result in a degloving injury, which can be particularly severe. This is something to keep in mind when your gerbil tries to make a dive off the table and you go to catch it. It’s also best not to restrain your gerbil by the tail.

All in all, gerbils can make terrific pets with the right social circle and care.

Having owned over 50 of my own ferrets through the years and treated thousands more, I am thoroughly convinced that every ferret has some diarrhea on an intermittent basis. The significance of that diarrhea depends on the severity, frequency, and overall impact on the health status of that individual patient.

Unfortunately, ferrets are blessed with an ultrashort intestinal tract and plentiful diets that are not designed with the ferret GI tract in mind, which is a recipe for severe and chronic GI disease. The transit time from end to end is only 3-4 hours, and the ferret is an obligate carnivore: they have little tolerance for the sweet treats offered by owners and the high-carbohydrate foods on the commercial market. From end to end, the ferret was designed and built to be an efficient predator, well adapted to a carnivorous lifestyle. Unfortunately, the commercialized high-carbohydrate kibbled diets are not compatible with their anatomy and physiology, and likely contribute to the extremely high incidence of GI diseases seen in pet ferrets. In large part, we do just about everything wrong when we feed our pet ferrets, and this comes to light in typical ferret fashion with chronic disease.

Perhaps the most common finding associated with GI disease in ferrets is diarrhea. Ferrets are little diarrhea machines, and since the GI tract is short, regular and severe diarrhea can rapidly lead to dehydration in as little as 3-4 hours. Not only is ferret diarrhea often frequent and profuse, it is colorful. Shades of neon green are not unusual to see, as well as bright mustard yellows, sunset reds, and black tar.

Dental Issues Relate to GI Disease

Dental disease is a nearly universal problem with older ferrets, and may be prevented by regular oral hygiene by owners. This can be challenging however, given the complete inability of most ferrets to sit still for more than a few seconds at a time, so healthy chew treats are sometimes substituted.

Ferrets have 34 permanent adult teeth. The canine teeth are designed to puncture and grip their prey. The fact that these are capable of delivering such a powerful and often fatal bite is a testament to the gentle personality of our ferrets – we rarely get treated to more than a mere nip of these strong teeth. Damage to the canines is common, particularly in animals housed for too long or too frequently in cages, as bar biting is a common result of cage frustration and can lead to fracture or breakage of these teeth. Dental pain, however, does need to be ruled in or out when working up a GI case, particularly if the ferret is not interested in eating.

In my clinical experience, it appears that ferrets fed exclusively a commercial kibbled diet often have the most severe dental disease. Those fed a balanced homemade diet combined with small amounts of kibble appear to fare better. Some dental health proponents recommend an “all prey” diet for ferrets. I do not have a large enough database of ferrets fed prey-based diets to have an opinion on this relative to dental health, but I can say that my own ferrets who ate prey for treats did have reasonably good oral health. Also, from my personal experience, the most effective dental treat appears to be N-bone Chew Treats. I have fed and recommended them for years, and believe that they do work.

However, there is no substitute for a good diet, avoiding sugary treats, and providing oral hygiene. I generally prepare owners for the eventual need for professional veterinary dental cleaning as their young ferret matures; periodontal disease can be seen by the age of 2-3 years.

The Digestive Tract and Diets

Like other carnivores, ferrets have a short digestive tract. Start to finish, the digestive tract is three to four times the length of its body, while an herbivore (such as a cow) has one greater than ten times the length of its body. Therefore, domestic ferret food only takes about 3-4 hours to digest.

This translates into a lot of poop! New ferret owners are often surprised – and dismayed – by the frequency and volume of ferret stool, but this is a normal and unavoidable byproduct of the short digestive tract. Many products supposedly reduce the odor of the fecal matter; however, my experience has been that the odor is best reduced when a high quality, non-fish-based diet is used. Strong and offensive stool odor, or changing odor, in the face of good husbandry and diet is cause for concern. I have seen a few ferrets with significant GI disease whose stool smell could outrank a skunk!

One of the arguments in favor of raw diets is that the short GI transit time helps to prevent food-borne bacteria (such as Salmonella and E. coli) from affecting the ferret, but I am not sure that there is much evidence to substantiate that claim. Additionally, ferrets with GI disease may have an altered transit time. Although from a physiological and anatomical standpoint there are strong cases to be made for a prey-based diet in ferrets, there are also risks.

I am firmly of the opinion at this point in time that we really don’t have a perfect diet available for ferrets that meets all of their anatomic and physiologic needs as well as the desires of their owners; we simply have an array of compromises to choose from. For my ferrets, I use a blend of four or five different high-quality ferret kibbled foods from several different manufacturers and several different protein sources, and hope to strike the balance through diversity.

Ferrets have a large, simple stomach, which is designed to hold a huge meal followed by a period of fasting; however, if you look at a ferret’s behavior, it will typically eat small meals frequently, like a cat does. The small intestine and entire colon are very short. The diameter of the small intestine is also small, which can cause considerable problems given the proclivity of ferrets to snack on everything rubber or foam that they find, from remote controls to kid’s toys. That short colon helps explain why diarrhea is such a common problem in ferrets!

Foreign Objects

Ferrets will get into anything and everything – so once again, don’t assume. Once my entire business of 14 ferrets got into my office (allegedly off limits) and into the top drawer of my desk (are you picturing a pyramid of ferrets right about now?). There, they managed to find a non-childproofed bottle of ibuprofen, which they chose to open and proceeded to lick all of the coating off the 70-plus tablets in the bottle. That evening we had 14 ferrets hooked up to IV fluids in my living room. The determined ferret can outsmart almost every human pet-parent around (including me). Do not underestimate the power of the ferret!

Symptoms of GI disease vary amongst ferrets and are largely non-specific. Perhaps the most common complaint, not surprisingly given their anatomy/physiology, is diarrhea. What might be surprising, though, is that the only sign for some conditions, such as foreign body ingestion, might be reduced appetite and diarrhea! This can make it challenging to your veterinarian to determine whether an animal with loose stool has a mild gastroenteritis that can be addressed symptomatically, or a more serious disease that warrants an exploratory surgery.

A common symptom of GI discomfort includes grinding their teeth (bruxism). Sometimes it will be the only sign. Individual ferrets are more or less sensitive to discomfort, and what might result in tooth grinding in one patient will not in another, making it difficult to assign importance to this finding.

Similarly difficult is the symptom of vomiting. Some ferrets are sensitive to gastric inflammation and will profusely salivate and vomit with the slightest indication of gastritis, while others will have large gastric foreign bodies and exhibit no vomiting.

When to See your Veterinarian

See your veterinarian if your ferret seems lethargic, is vomiting, has significant diarrhea, or is grinding their teeth. Those are fairly obvious signs that a ferret is not well. However, if you notice changes in appetite, stool appearance, odor, and other more subtle changes, your ferret should also see the veterinarian. Sometimes those subtle changes can be the earliest signs.

Young rabbits are reported to be more sensitive to the effects of than older ones. Seizures are often not seen until 3-9 days after exposure. Death may not occur for a week or two after exposure.

In the event of known application, whether accidental or intentional, the rabbit should be treated for topical cutaneous exposure. When rabbits lick the product while grooming, they absorb 30-50% of it, compared to absorbing only 0.07% of it just from being on their skin. The rabbit should be bathed in warm water with a mild puppy/kitten shampoo, towel-dried afterwards, and then placed in a warm incubator to dry. While this could be done at home, a rabbit showing clinical signs should be at the clinic for supportive care. In addition, the use of activated charcoal may be a good idea because rabbits rapidly groom off any product applied topically, so they are likely to ingest Frontline.

By the time a rabbit is showing clinical signs, prognosis for recovery is guarded, but bathing and activated charcoal should still be attempted. Supportive care should include fluid therapy and force feeding. If the rabbit has seizures, he should be controlled with anti-seizure medications such as Valium or midazolam. If there is no improvement in the first 72 hours, then the prognosis for recovery is guarded.  

https://www.homeagain.com/our-services/emergency-medical-hotline

https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control

This mouthiness is not a form of aggression, just a normal, energetic ferret. Like puppies, ferrets need to be taught what acceptable play is and what is too rough for human skin.

The intelligent and curious nature of ferrets does not lend itself to many hours in a small cage. Although ferrets may be caged for their own safety, they do require large amounts of time out of cage to exercise, explore, and play. A minimum of 3-4 hours per day of interactive, social playtime should be provided. Ferrets are social creatures, and usually thrive in a multi-ferret household, with the number in the business (a grouping of ferrets, like a flock of sheep) determined primarily by the space and resources provided to them by their owners. Confining ferrets to a cage for 20 hours per day is similar to confining a young Lab puppy to a crate for the same period of time; it does not provide adequate room nor stimulation. Caging a ferret is similar to crate training a puppy and done often for safety purposes but not as a way of life.

Housing

Cages, if used, should be large and multi-story since ferrets enjoy climbing and having high vantage points. A rough rule of thumb is that a single ferret cage should be a minimum of 3 feet high, 3 feet wide, and 2 feet deep. As the number of ferrets increases, so must the cage size as well as the amount of out of cage time provided. In larger businesses (more than 5 animals) a small spare bedroom provides adequate space.

Caging and ferret areas should be provided with ample soft bedding for hiding, sleeping, and playing. They are usually relatively easily litter box trained (at least for the most part) and boxes should be placed in the corner of the cage where the ferret likes to go. There is no need to place recycled paper products (such as Carefresh) in the majority of the cage, unless you are unable/unwilling to litter train.

All wire footing surfaces (ramps, floors) should be covered with soft materials to prevent injury. Inspect cages for possible sources of injury as well as appropriate spacing between the bars. Just because a cage is marketed for a given species does NOT mean that it is safe or ideal for that species!

Bedding in the cage will need to be laundered several times weekly to remove the body oils and odor associated with ferrets.

Ferrets kept in clean cages and fed an appropriate diet and who are relatively healthy will have a minor amount of body odor. A smelly, greasy ferret either has an underlying health condition or a dirty cage at home. Ferrets should have access to at least one more sleeping spot than there are ferrets in the area – so three ferrets must have four sleeping spots to choose from and so on. Sleeping spots can be hammocks, sleep sacks, beds, hanging pouches, and so on. Often ferrets prefer to “pile sleep,” but should have the option to sleep solo.

Most ferrets are quick to open cupboards, exposing them to items like household chemicals and other unhealthy surprises considered “locked up” by the owners. Since ferrets can also climb, they often can and will access items placed high such as windowsills, closet shelves, and counter tops.

Similarly, they can get into and under furniture items and become injured, and recliners are particularly deadly. Calls for ferrets stuck in the walls, under bathtubs, and in appliances are common. It is critical for owners to review the area frequented by the ferrets carefully from floor level and make it completely safe.

Areas that cannot be adequately ferret proofed should be blocked off by a closed door or Plexiglas gate (ferrets will climb baby gates). Since they are fast, owners must ensure a system is in place to prevent escape when someone enters or exits the house. A ferret that leaves the house is likely a dead ferret.

Perhaps one of the most common, and potentially life threatening, behavior problems is their unique ability to creatively access any area they decide they want to go. Common sense is lacking in young ferrets and the need for exploration far exceeds the sense of danger. Owners must be constantly vigilant to stay one step ahead of the ferret on an unintentional suicide mission. This situation can be frustrating to the owner and deadly to the ferret. It is not acceptable to just consistently confine them to a cage; rather you must develop “ferret safe” areas in the house and provide adequate mental stimulation to entertain them.

Safety tip: Ferrets will do anything they can to find trouble.

Other Pets

Ferrets are predatory creatures, and small pets such as rodents and birds may be in jeopardy from the playful advances of a predator. Similarly, ferrets are petite and can easily be injured by family dogs. Cats may also provide a risk, but sometimes cats stalk ferrets and sometimes ferrets stalk cats.

Either way, the interaction must be closely monitored.

Diet

Diet is an important, and often overlooked, aspect of ferret care. They need a high protein, moderate to high fat, and low carbohydrate diet of high quality. It is critical for their health.

Ferrets are obligate carnivores, and as such, have specific nutrient needs. Unfortunately, ferrets also have strong preferences, and not always for what is best for them – and it can be difficult for owners to convert an adult ferret to an appropriate diet. Also unfortunate is that the higher quality ferret foods are expensive, leading many owners to feed a lower quality cat food. Although cats are also obligate carnivores, they can digest a higher carbohydrate load than is ideal for ferrets. Therefore, while ferrets can survive on cat food, a high-quality ferret kibble is preferable.

Protein requirements are high (32-38%), and they cannot properly digest vegetable proteins. In general, proteins from poultry meat/poultry by-products are considered the most nutritious. Secondary sources, such as meat meal, whole eggs, and liver meal may be included as well. Avoid vegetable proteins (soy, corn, cereal grains). Fish-based proteins result in exceptionally smelly stool and a greasy hair coat, and while they may be nutritious, they tend to be unpleasant for you.

At no time should diets containing dried fruits, vegetables, or seeds be fed to ferrets: not only do they have no nutritional benefit, they can cause intestinal obstructions.

Ferrets also have an unusually high need for fat in their diets (20-23%). Poultry should be the primary source of this fat, with little or none of it coming from vegetable sources (such as corn oil, lecithin, or vegetable oil). Similarly, beef tallow is not easily digested by them.

Ferrets have little use for carbohydrates and fiber. A high quality, simple carbohydrate (such as brewer’s rice or rice flour) is appropriate, but corn and wheat flours are not easily digested. Fiber levels should be at 2% or less; allowing the ferret to absorb more nutrients and eliminate less waste. Beet pulp is a common source of fiber for ferrets.

Taurine supplementation is necessary, and they may have a higher need for vitamin A than many of our traditional pet species.

Ferrets are about as good at getting treats out of their owners as Labrador retrievers are. They are completely unwilling to acknowledge that some of their favorite snacks simply are not good for them. Healthy treats that can be incorporated on a daily basis include small amounts of unseasoned lean meats and organ meats, cooked eggs, homemade turkey/salmon/beef jerky, insects (mealworms, earthworms, crickets, as you would feed a reptile), killed prey animals (small rats, mice, chicks), chicken/turkey baby food, fatty acid and vitamin supplements (Ferrettone, Furotone), and dental care treats (N-bone Ferret Chew Sticks and Zupreem Dental Sticks Ferret Treats).

Fleas and Heartworms

Only one flea preventive is available for use specifically for ferrets only: Advantage II for Ferrets. Anything else is off label, meaning it is treatment for a condition for which it has not been officially approved. Before this ferret-specific product came on the market, ferrets were given cat products. 

Only one drug, Advantage Multi for Cats (imidacloprid and moxidectin), is approved to prevent heartworms in ferrets. No drugs are FDA-approved to treat heartworm disease in this species. Talk to your ferret veterinarian about the use of off-label drugs for treatment.

Grooming

Perhaps the most important aspect of home care involves toenail trimming. Young ferrets have rapidly growing, sharp toenails. If not trimmed on a regular basis, these nails not only damage you and your furniture, but will also get snagged in bedding and toys. Many ferrets have broken toes and sometimes even self-amputated limbs with overgrown toenails.

As ferrets age, their nails generally grow more slowly and become thicker, so the risks lessen slightly. For young animals, however, nail trimming might be necessary on a weekly basis.As the animals age, it may be necessary to trim only every second or third week,

I prefer using the small, flat nippers many people use on their own nails; my technicians usually use the White style trimmers commonly used on cats. The nails are usually clear and the blood line easily visible, making trimming a routine and simple process.

Ferret ears also require regular grooming care. Many ferrets are prone to a lot of ear wax, which, if left alone, may result in inflammation. Although not all ferrets are bothered by ear wax, some benefit from regular ear cleaning. I clean ears gently with a small cotton swab moistened with a commercial ear cleaner safe for cats. Signs of a diseased ear include redness, pain, odor, pus, itchiness, etc. Not all ferrets need their ears cleaned, even though all ferrets appear to produce a lot of ear wax.

Dental Needs

Ferrets are prone to dental disease, and many are amenable to having their teeth brushed at home either with a commercial toothbrushing kit used in cats or with a gauze dipped in flavored commercial pet toothpaste.

Bathing

Many owners feel they need to bathe their ferret because of the smell. In reality, overbathing causes the ferret to release more coat oils, and generally will increase the smell. If a ferret has a strong smell, it is either being kept in a dirty cage, being fed a poor (fish based) diet, or has a health issue. Well cared for healthy ferrets have a minimal smell. In general, ferrets do not need to be bathed any more frequently than the average house cat. If necessary, a mild shampoo such as Johnson and Johnson natural baby shampoo is appropriate. Bathing should not be done more than monthly, if at all.

Many ferrets, however, tremendously enjoy simply playing in water or snow – and most owners will allow them that opportunity on a regular basis without the oil stripping effect of shampoos and chemicals. They will dry themselves by slithering through towels on the floor, thinking they have gotten away with something and created an awesome new game.