Many adorable small pets are available to you and your children, but which one suits you, your children and your lifestyle? Do you want to be able to have young children hold them, or is it enough for your kids only to watch their pets as entertainment?

It’s helpful to think in advance about what small pet would best suit your lifestyle before your children spy a desperately desired impulse purchase.

Rabbits

Pros: Adorable, often very playful and social. Can be kept solitary or in small groups.  Should be spayed/neutered, which allows for “mixed sex” groups.

Cons: Expensive and high maintenance to take care of properly

Best for children old enough and responsible enough for significant cleaning duties as well as food preparation; early teens and up.

Taking care of a rabbit is similar to expense and effort required to care for a dog or cat.  They require daily out of cage social time and playtime, large amounts of leafy green vegetables to eat every day, and therefore also produce lots of poo to be cleaned every single day. They should be spayed/neutered and require regular veterinary care particularly as they age.

Mice

Pros: Small and inexpensive pets. Can be kept solitary and in small groups.  Learn routines and food games quickly. With enough in cage stimulation, do not always require handling.

Cons: Fast moving, smelly, and may be nippy

Good for even very small children if they will not be handling, but older children (8 and up) if they want to hold the mice.

Mice are engaging and very personable pets which can be reasonably content in a confined space if provided lots of enrichment. However, they do have very stinky urine, and so steady cleaning is required to keep their environment healthy.

Rats

Pros: Very engaging and interactive pets, intelligent, social, learn games quickly.

Cons: Short life expectancy and relatively expensive to maintain

Good for children of all ages if they are old enough/mature enough to be able to gently hold the rats.

Rats are wonderful pets, and full of personality.  They are best kept in small groups of 3-4 animals, and need a LOT more room than you might expect to be happy.  They also require a lot of social engagement and environmental enrichment.  Rats will eat themselves into oblivion, and it takes care and attention to prevent obesity. Unfortunately, they are sadly short lived, rarely making it more than 3 years, and often requiring a significant amount of veterinary care in that time period.

Hamsters

Pros: Amusing pets which are relatively content in a fairly small space. Can be kept as a solitary pet. Will create and play games entirely by themselves, but also often enjoy human interaction.

Cons: Nocturnal, can be very nippy, and fairly short lived.

Hamsters are best kept by older children who are able to gently hold a fast-moving animal and are responsible enough to wash their hands after contact.

Hamsters are delightful little animals – at 2 o’clock in the morning. Their nocturnal habits and tendency to be grouchy during daylight hours make them often poor pets for children.  They also can carry a number of diseases which can be contagious to humans. These adorable creatures are most appropriate for night owl adults.

Gerbils

Pros: Active, entertaining, maintenance-light animals. Can be kept in small social groups, and when neutered, can be in mixed sex housing.

Cons: Need lots of space to maneuver

Good pets for children old enough to gently restrain them, likely mature 6 year olds and up.

Gerbils are wonderful and active small animals, but they do need plenty of space and good ventilation for their antics.  They also require regular cleaning and careful feeding to stay healthy long term.

Guinea Pigs

Pros: Friendly, social, interactive pets. Often love human interaction, toys, and developing games. Can be kept in small groups or solo.

Cons: Delicate and require careful handling

Guinea pigs are good pets for even very young children, although they should not be allowed to handle them until they are significantly more mature – such as 8 and up.

Guinea pigs, with their funny looks and even funnier sounds, are great pets and make good family pets with careful adult supervision when they are handled.  Their short and squat body type isn’t forgiving of being manhandled or dropped. They also require some careful attention to be sure they are being fed a properly supplemented diet, and may require some regular veterinary care.

Chinchillas

Pros: That adorable little face. Friendly and engaging, active, entertaining, and often quite social and playful.  Females can be kept in small groups, or solo, males are best kept solo.

Cons: The mess, the chewing, and the nocturnal habits

Chinchillas are not frequently handled – they prefer keeping themselves busy, so they are appropriate for even small children to watch at play.

Chinchillas are an adorable pet just begging for an impulse purchase at the pet store.  However, they are very high maintenance in the cleaning department, leaving small dry poo everywhere they go.  They also tend to leave much harder to repair tooth marks in anything that they can manage to chew. Combine this with their need for a lot of time out of the cage, nocturnal habits – and these animals need just the right household to fit in.

Ferrets

Pros: Amusing, busy antics – almost like the blend of a puppy and a kitten that never grows up. They are intelligent, interactive, and best kept in small groups.  Because they typically come already neutered, mixed sex groups are possible.

Cons: Finding trouble everywhere they go, high maintenance, and significant veterinary costs

Ferrets are best pets for older children, those approaching their teens.

Ferrets are incredibly fun pets, acting with reckless abandon for most of their 5-7 year lifespan.  Unfortunately, this abandon combined with a strong tendency towards serious medical problems makes them extremely expensive to maintain – and not all veterinarians will treat ferrets.  The level of care that they require can easily match or exceed that of a dog or cats.

Parakeets

Pros: the beautiful colors and engaging personality. Some learn to talk, most do interact with whistles and other sounds. Can be kept solo or in small groups.

Cons: Can be nippy and difficult to train

Most parakeets are not excited about being handled, and as such – they are appropriate for even very young children who will be able to watch their antics without touching them.

Parakeets are often thought of as good “first birds”, but they tend to be more of the independent sort, and although they crave attention, it is on their terms.  They can be difficult to train, and are known to deliver swift nips when things are not going their way. Many were raised on “bird seed” – which is not an adequate diet and can lead to very expensive medical problems which are avoided with proper feeding.

Finches

Pros: The barrage of entertaining noises and watching the interactions between birds. They are active, engaging, and enthusiastic in their behavior. Best kept in small groups of single sex birds.

Cons: largely a caged pet – not one amenable to handling

Finches are not birds that enjoy handling, so they are appropriate for children of all ages to enjoy them playing within their cage.

Finches can be great fun for someone looking to have a bird that is content to spend all of its time in a (large) cage.  Finches should be kept in small groups – and watching them interact is great fun.  Do be aware that they can be quite messy, and be prepared to clean flung food and poop not only within the cage, but also well around it.

Bearded Dragons

Pros: Very social, interactive, and inquisitive. Best kept as a solo animal. Large and bright cages can make for a “center piece attraction” to a room

Cons: Expensive to maintain properly, requires a lot of attention to detail

Bearded dragons can move unexpectedly and surprisingly fast, and should not be handled by young children, but while in their cage can be enjoyed by children of all ages.

Bearded dragons are often considered a “starter reptile” – but this does not mean that they are “easy.”  There is a lot of special equipment required to take good care of a bearded dragon, and attention to the details of temperature and humidity are needed to keep them healthy.  That being said, they often crave attention and are one of the more social common reptile pets.

Geckos

Pros: Able to be maintained in a smaller enclosure than many other pet reptiles, interesting to watch. Best kept as a solo animal. Good starting point in to the world of reptiles.

Cons: Nocturnal, high maintenance, and requires a lot of attention to detail

Geckos are not typically fans of lots of handling, and as such, are best enjoyed by children of all ages within their cage.  Older children may be able to safely handle them, but not likely before the age of 8-10.

Geckos are very fascinating creatures, and watching them maneuver in a well-enriched enclosure can bring hours of enjoyment.  However, to stay healthy, they do require careful attention to the particulars of their husbandry and careful feeding, and can be prone to some very expensive medical problems – so these are appropriate pets for those with the inclination and means to care for them.

Sugar Gliders

Pros: Extremely engaging and entertaining animals. Active, full of personalities, and can be neutered to allow for mixed sex groups. Do best when kept in small groups.

Cons: Nocturnal, very smelly urine, high maintenance, and expensive to care for

Sugar gliders do not enjoy being awakened during the day and can be very grumpy about handling when they are tired, and so I recommend them for older/teenaged children and adults.

Sugar gliders are adorable, engaging pets – but are most active at night, which can keep the grumpy pet owner awake!  They are high maintenance and are fairly expensive to care for properly. Males should be neutered for population control if males and females are housed together. Females can be safely spayed by a veterinarian knowledgeable in sugar glider anatomy, however, it is a more difficult surgery and we do not yet know if there are benefits from a health perspective. If not fed properly, they are likely to develop some costly medical problems.

How do I know if my rabbit is overheating?

Don’t put a heating pad under a small cage in which a rabbit is confined unless directed by a veterinarian for a specific reason. Never leave your rabbit in the car on warm days (anything over 65F) while you run a quick errand.Most importantly, avoid placing your rabbit in a situation where it can overheat. Rabbits can overheat in temperatures 80F or higher, especially if the humidity level is high. Do not leave rabbits outside in high temperatures and high humidity without a cool shelter. Do not leave cages unattended in direct sunlight indoors even in the winter, because glass windows can intensify the heat from the sun. During hot weather if your house is not air-conditioned, place your pet in the coolest area (basement) and use a fan to circulate air. Consider purchasing a room air conditioner for at least one area.

Overheated rabbits will initially become quiet and start panting. They may stretch out and keep their eyes half closed. The ears have large blood vessels near the surface of the skin so they can be used as natural “air conditioners” to release extra heat. The ears in an overheated rabbit will become very warm. The rabbit’s gums and conjunctiva, which is the pinkish tissue under the eyelids, will become dark red and look congested. At this stage it is usually possible to reverse the effects of the overheating by cooling the rabbit.

As overheating progresses, the brain become affected as well as other organ systems and the rabbit starts to go into shock. Signs seen with severe overheating include sudden collapse, complete unresponsiveness, hyperactivity, bizarre behavior or seizures before collapsing or collapse with overexaggerated breathing. When a rabbit collapses he falls to the side, the eyes are usually open and dull looking, and he is not responsive to being touched. The gums and conjunctiva turn muddy brown, eventually to white, as the shock condition deepens. The ears may become cooler because shock causes blood to flow away from the extremities.

The prognosis for an overheated rabbit that has collapsed and is showing signs of severe shock is grave. Rabbits in this condition need immediate veterinary intervention including drugs to combat shock and cool intravenous fluids.

If you suspect your rabbit is overheating, immediately remove your pet to the coolest area you can find. If he is still somewhat alert and is still able to sit upright, take a washcloth soaked in cool tap water (not ice water) and wrap it around both ears to try to cool the blood and thus the body. Do not immediately soak your rabbit with water, as this can be very stressful, but try cooling the ears first.

If the rabbit is not improving after about 5 to 10 minutes of ear cooling, then gently wet the fur with lukewarm water, not ice water. If you use ice water it actually may cause the shock to get worse. If your pet is already collapsed, get him out of the hot area, use a cool cloth on the ears and take your pet to a veterinary office immediately. This is an extreme emergency situation.

Is it bad for my bunny to snack on dog or cat food?

Yes, it is dangerous for a rabbit to snack on dog or cat food. These foods are designed for carnivores, not for herbivores. They are high in protein and fat as well as carbohydrates in the form of grains, usually corn. Although rabbits can eat small amounts of dog or cat food and appear to be normal, there can be insidious changes that take place over time. Excessive levels of protein can lead to kidney damage; excessive levels of fat and grain-based carbohydrates can lead to obesity.

However, by far the most dangerous side effect in rabbits who eat dry dog or cat food is the disturbance of the normal intestinal flora that will ultimately lead to intestinal distress and death. We have seen rabbits become seriously ill and some die within 24 hours of eating dog food due to acute intestinal disorders. Please keep all dog and cat food out of the reach of your rabbit!

When I take my rabbit in for a check-up to the vet, what will the veterinarian expect me to know about my rabbit?

When you take your rabbit to a veterinarian for any reason, it is a good idea to be prepared with the rabbit’s history and with questions you might have. Unless you are dealing with an emergency, take a moment before you leave the house and write down as much of the following general information as you can about your pet (this applies to any pet going to the veterinarian). It can be helpful and increase the efficiency of your visit if you give this information when you first check in at the receptionist’s desk.

• Date of birth
• Date and place where you acquired the pet
• Sex of the pet and whether it is surgically altered
• Description of the environment (cage size, cage furniture, location in house, etc)
• Exercise (how often, where)
• Diet (be specific and include all foods including treats, frequency of feeding)
• Current medications (including vitamins and “natural” supplements/medications)
• Other pets in the household

If your pet is experiencing a medical problem, the following information is also helpful:

1. When the condition first appeared
2. Detailed description of the abnormality
3. Medications/treatments already tried or being used now
4. Records from other veterinarians
5. Other animals/humans ill in household
6. Your own thoughts on the cause of this condition

It is also a good idea to have a list of questions you wish to ask during the visit. If they are written down, you won’t forget and you can record the answers on the same page for your permanent records.

I suggest that you keep a medical file at home on your pet with the general information as well as records from your veterinary office and questions and answers you have had along the way. You can easily take this file with you if you need to get a second opinion or are traveling.

Rabbits make intelligent, friendly and quiet house pets. The average life span for a bunny is 7 to 10 years with records of up to 15 years of age reported. The following information is provided to help you enjoy a happy, healthy relationship with your little friend. In addition to this handout there are a number of excellent books on the topic of rabbit health care that you may wish to consult.

Diet

Obesity is a problem with rabbits that eat a diet too high in calories and that don’t get enough exercise. A healthy rabbit should be slim and sleek. You should be able to feel the ribs just under the skin without a thick layer of fat. The hindquarters should not have any folds of skin covering or interfering with the digestive tract or urinary openings. The dewlaps in females should not be so large as to interfere with grooming or eating. If you are in doubt about your rabbit’s proper weight, please consult your veterinarian.

Cecotropes

Rabbits are herbivores with a marvelous gastrointestinal (GI) tract that allows them to extract nutrients from a variety of sources. Rabbits are meant to live on a diet composed of large quantities of grasses and leaves. They also graze on flowers and fruits that can be found at different times of the year. Rabbits are successful at making the most out of the food they eat, food that many other animals could not even digest. One of the keys to their success is the production of cecotropes, which are a type of dropping that is eaten by the rabbit directly from the anus and then digested. These droppings are not made up of waste materials but rather are rich in organisms that have come from the area of the intestinal tract called the cecum. These organisms are packed with nutrients such as amino acids (the building blocks of proteins), fatty acids and a variety of vitamins. In order for the rabbit to get these nutrients, the cecotropes, including the organisms, must be eaten and digested. In this way, rabbits can extract the maximum nutrients from low-energy food materials. They literally produce some of their own food!

Healthy rabbits will eat their cecotropes directly from the anus and you will not see these droppings in the cage. If a rabbit has a medical problem that prevents him from reaching the anus, then you may see cecotropes on the cage floor. Cecotropes are elongated, greenish in color, coated in mucous and have a strong odor. Consult your veterinarian if you see a large number of cecotropes in the cage because your rabbit may be missing vital nutrition. If a rabbit is eating a diet that is too rich in nutrients, such as one that contains mostly commercial pellets, there may normally be a few cecotropes dropped in the cage.

For more information on the workings of the GI tract of the rabbit read Rabbit Hairballs. Cecotropes are a vital part of your rabbit’s diet.

Grass Hay

Grass hay is one of the most important parts of your pet’s diet. Hay should be provided at all times in your pet’s cage. Hay is appropriate for all ages of rabbits, starting at weaning. Hay provides a number of important things for your rabbit’s health.

• It is rich in nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and proteins 
• Provides “food” for the micro-organisms that make up the cecotropes 
• Provides indigestible fiber that promotes healthy motility (movement of contents) of the intestinal tract 
• Provides healthy chewing activity to promote proper wear of the teeth (all rabbit teeth grow continuously throughout life) 
• Chewing also provides healthy mental activity, which decreases chewing of inappropriate objects such as furniture and wallpaper 
• Provides a full feeling in the stomach that is satisfying and may also prevent inappropriate chewing

Remember that rabbits are designed to live primarily on a diet of grasses and leaves, therefore grass hay can provide a good portion of that diet. There are two basic types of hay available: grass and legume.

• Legume hays are made from alfalfa, clover, peas, beans or peanuts. These hays are loaded with nutrients but have more calories, calcium and protein than a house rabbit needs. Feeding only legume hays may lead to GI disorders and obesity and for this reason we do not recommend feeding these hays. If you mix legume hay with grass hay, the rabbit may only pick out the calorie-rich legume hay and thus overload himself with calories, so we do not recommend mixing grass and legume hay. There are now several online sources of grass hay so even if you live in an area where you cannot get grass hay you should be able to order it online.  A small amount of alfalfa hay used as a treat is fine but not used as the routine hay source for the house rabbit.  
  
• Grass hays are made from timothy, meadow, oat, rye, barley or Bermuda grasses. Grass hay availability varies greatly in different areas of the country and the world. You may only be able to obtain one variety where you live. However, if at all possible, try to feed mixed grass hay or provide two or more individual types. Contrary to some sources it is not necessary to only feed timothy hay and it is much preferable to feed a variety of grass hays if available.  Grass hays are rich in nutrients but provide the lower energy diet appropriate for a house rabbit. These are the healthiest hays to feed. If you have a choice, choose sun-dried hay which has retained more of its nutrients than commercially dried hay. Do not feed straw. Straw is devoid of most nutrients and although it is not harmful in small amounts, it will lead to serious nutritional deficiencies if it is a major part of the rabbit diet.

Sources for hay include veterinary clinics, horse barns, feed stores, pet stores, rabbit clubs and a growing number of online stores.  A few online stores that carry grass hay include the Oxbow Company,   Kaytee, and  Sweet Meadow.

When you buy hay you need to consider the following:

• Buy hay that smells fresh, never buy damp or old hay 
• Buy from a reputable source that replenishes the hay frequently 
• If you buy from a feed store or horse barn, buy hay that has not been on the top of the pile to prevent contamination with animal or bird droppings.

Hay can be stored at home in a dry place that has good air circulation. Do not close the bag of hay but rather leave it open. Hay can be given to your pet in a variety of ways including in a hay rack attached to the side of the cage, in a box or basket within the cage or exercise area, or even placed in the litter box. Rabbits often pass stools when they are eating and placing some hay in the litter box can help with litter box training. They will not eat soiled hay, so you need not worry about sanitation. Always keep hay in the cage or exercise area and replenish as needed. You can also stuff hay into toilet paper rolls and other hiding areas as a fun way to increase mental exercise associated with foraging for food.  Providing a regular source of grass hay is a major key in preventing many diseases in a pet rabbit.

Green Foods

Green foods are the next most important food in the rabbit’s diet. Green foods provide all the same benefits listed for hay. They also contain a wider variety of micronutrients and, importantly, provide water in the diet. Even though you may be providing a water container in the cage, rabbits do not always drink as much as they should. Feeding green foods forces the rabbit to take in liquid and thus helps promote healthy GI function as well as kidney and bladder function. You will notice that if you feed your pet a lot of green foods, he will drink very little water, which is normal.

It is NEVER appropriate to feed your rabbit a diet comprised primarily of green foods.  The green foods available in the grocery stores do not have enough concentrated calories to sustain a rabbit’s normal body weight when this is the primary source of food.  Even in the wild a rabbit would eat dried grasses and tree and bush leaves to obtain more calories. Greens are an important addition to the diet, but should never be the total diet.

If your rabbit has never eaten green foods before, it is important to start her on hay first. This will help to make the appropriate changes in the flora of the GI tract, including improving movement and production of cecotropes. In this way you can avoid the problem of soft stools that is occasionally seen when you give greens to a rabbit who has never eaten hay or greens. This is not a dangerous disease; it is only the rabbit’s intestinal tract making changes from its sluggish state to a more active state. However, these soft stools can be messy, so making the change to hay first for a month at minimum will avoid this problem. Greens are appropriate for any age of rabbit if the rabbit is already eating hay on a daily basis as mentioned above.

When selecting and using green foods follow these guidelines:

• Buy (or grow) organic if possible 
• Wash any green foods first 
• Make sure your rabbit is eating hay well first
• Introduce greens a little at a time over several days and watch the stools for any change
• Feed a variety of green foods daily – a minimum would be three varieties – variety provides a wider range of micronutrients as well as mental stimulation for your pet 
• Feed a maximum of about  1 packed cup of green foods per 2 pounds of body weight at least once a day or this amount divided twice a day.

Occasionally you may have a situation where a select green food causes a soft stool. You will know if this is the case within 12 hours of feeding the offending food. If you are feeding a variety of greens and are not sure which one is causing the problem, then feed only one green food every 48 hours until the offending food is identified and then simply remove it from the diet. This is not a dangerous situation, but it can be messy and there is no need to give a food that is causing a problem. There are many green foods from which to choose.

There are a huge variety of green foods that you can offer your pet. You might even consider growing some yourself! This would include grass that you grow in your yard but it can only be used if there have been no pesticides or other chemicals used on it. You might consider growing a patch of grass just for your bunnies. And don¹t throw away those dandelions when you pull them up, if they have not been treated with any chemicals they are an excellent source of nutrition. In general, the darker green a food is, the higher the nutritional value. This is why, for instance, we do not recommend iceberg lettuce. It is not dangerous, but is extremely low in nutritional content. You can use packages of mixed salad greens s if they contain dark colored greens and are not comprised primarily of iceberg lettuce or romaine lettuce. Please, no salad dressing!

Here are some of the green foods you might consider:

• Baby greens
• Bok Choy
• Borage  Basil
• Broccoli (leaves and top) 
• Brussels sprouts 
• Cabbage (red, green, Chinese) 
• Carrot/beet tops
• Celery (leaves are good)
• Chickory
• Collard greens 
• Dandelion greens (and flower) 
• Dock
• Endive 
• Escarole
• Kale
• Leaf lettuce 
• Mustard greens 
• Parsley (Italian or flat leaf best) 
• Radicchio 
• Romaine lettuce 
• Swiss chard (any color) 
• Water cress  

Fruits and other Vegetables (Treat Foods)

Depending on the time of year, rabbits in the wild would have access to additional foods such as fruits, vegetables and flowers. Since these items do not make up the majority of the diet, we recommend feeding these treats in limited quantities. Another reason for limiting the amount is because some rabbits like these foods so well that they will eat them to the exclusion of all others, thereby creating a potential for health problems. Foods from this list can be fed daily and you may even wish to use them as part of a reward or training system.

*TIP: Find at least one food in this list that your rabbit likes and feed a small amount daily to check on how good your rabbit’s appetite is.  If your rabbit will not eat her treat food, then there may be other problems brewing and you need to keep a close eye on your pet for health problems.

These treat foods are far healthier (and less expensive) that the commercial treat foods sold for rabbits. Commercial treat foods should generally be avoided because many are loaded with starch and fat and if fed in quantity can cause serious health problems. Read the label on any treat food to make sure the ingredients are not primarily based on grains.  Sticking to natural and healthy treats for your pet is a better alternative.

For treat foods, follow the same guidelines listed above for selecting and using green foods with the exception of the amount.

You can feed your pet a total of 1 tablespoon per 2 pounds of body weight per day of any combination of the foods below:

• Apple
• Bean or alfalfa sprouts 
• Blackberries 
• Blueberries
• Cactus fruit 
• Carrots 
• Cherries 
• Cranberries
• Edible flowers from the garden (organically grown and NOT from a florist) such as roses, nasturtiums, day lilies, pansies and snap dragons
• Green or red bell peppers 
• Kiwi Fruit 
• Mango
• Melons
• Papaya
• Pea pods (flat, NO peas) 
• Peach 
• Pear 
• Pineapple 
• Raspberries 
• Squash

Dried fruit can be used as well, but since it is so concentrated, use only one third the amount as fresh.  Instead of one tablespoon use one teaspoon. We do not recommend feeding bananas and grapes as rabbits sometimes become “addicted” to these foods. If you chose to feed them, watch your pet carefully to ensure that he is also eating sufficient quantities of green foods and hay.

Forbidden Foods

A diet of grass hay and green foods with small amounts of fruits and vegetables contains all the nutrition necessary for the pet rabbit. Unfortunately there are many commercial treat foods sold for rabbits that contain high levels of starch and fat. In addition, some people still feel that it is necessary to feed rabbits high starch foods such as cereals, cakes and cookies. Although a pet rabbit can eat very small amounts of starchy or fatty foods without ill effect, the problem is that people often feed excess amounts because the rabbits eat these foods so greedily. Our recommendation is to completely avoid high starch and/or fat foods for your pet. In this way you will avoid any potential problems these foods can cause, including obesity and serious GI disease. It is always easier to prevent than to treat a disease.

Examples of high fat and/or starch foods to AVOID include:

• Any other grains
• Beans (of any kind) 
• Breads 
• Cereals 
• Chocolate 
• Corn
• Nuts
• Oats 
• Peas 
• Refined sugar 
• Seeds 
• Wheat

Commercial Rabbit Pellets

Rabbit pellets should generally only comprise a small portion of a pet rabbit’s diet.  There are much healthier commercial rabbit pellets available now then we had 20 or more years ago; then all the pellets were alfalfa and grain based and although they did successfully produce fast-growing rabbits that put on weight quickly, which was the goal of the commercial rabbit industry, we found they caused a number of serious problems for our pet rabbits.  The idea of producing a uniform and concentrated food source was not a bad idea but when fed to the exclusion of anything else in the diet we see these problems in the pet rabbit:

• High calorie content can lead to obesity – it’s easy to overfeed because the rabbit is always acting “hungry.” Unfortunately the concentrated and small form of the pellets does not lead to a feeling of fullness that a diet based on grass hay can provide.  Even though rabbits should eat to their caloric needs, in captivity with boredom they will overeat pellets if they are provided free choice.
  
• Low indigestible fiber content can lead to a sluggish GI tract and eventually more serious GI disease, including complete GI shutdown. 
  
• Doesn’t promote normal tooth wear due to the concentrated nature of the food – a couple of chews and the food is pulverized as opposed to the much longer chewing time it takes to break down hay or greens. 
  
• Lack of sufficient chewing activity and a “full feeling” in stomach due to concentrated nature of the food may lead to behavioral problems, such as inappropriate or excessive chewing on furniture, plants, wallboard.  This could be likened to a sense of boredom.  Rabbits in the wild spend a great deal of their day eating. and pellets can be eaten in a few minutes. 
  
• Concentrated, dry nature of pellets may not promote normal water intake, resulting in potential urinary tract disease.  A rabbit’s natural diet would not be this consistently low in moisture.

The recommendation for feeding pellets would be that they comprise ideally 10% of the healthy rabbit’s diet and maximally no more then 20%. 

In some cases it may be necessary to feed a higher amount for the following reasons:

• In households where hay cannot be used due to human allergies or unavailability
   
• To implement a weight gain most often related to a debilitating illness 
  
• When the owners are unable to feed a varied diet of good quality grass hay and a variety of green foods.  Pellets will help to cover some of the trace nutrients that might be missed in a restricted diet.
  
• For female rabbits that are used for breeding during the pregnancy and nursing period.  They have a high requirement for calories during these times and it may be necessary to increase pellets during this time period or even to feed them free choice.

When selecting a pellet look for the following:

1. 18% or higher in fiber 
2. 2.5% or lower in fat
3. 16% or less in protein
4. 1.0 % or less in calcium
5. Do not buy pellet mixes that also contain seeds, dried fruits or nuts.
6. Buy pellets based on grass hays (timothy, orchard grass, brome, etc) NOT alfalfa hay (your veterinarian can advise you if an alfalfa based pellet is needed for situations in ill animals where weight gain may be needed).

The amount to feed a healthy rabbit would be approximately ¼ cup of pellets per 4 lbs of body weight daily.  This can be divided and fed twice a day or all fed once a day.  Pellets can even be fed one by one and used in a training program. I recommend 1/4 maximum for other than giant breeds and 1/8 cup maximum for dwarfs, but even less for each if there are medical issues.

For rabbits that have chronic GI problems or have issues of excessive weight, it may be preferable to completely remove pellets from the diet. Please consult your veterinarian about changing to this type of diet if needed.

Water

Water should always be available and changed daily. A dirty water container can be a breeding ground for bacteria. Use either a water bottle or a heavy bowl that is weighted or secured to the side of the cage so that it does not tip over. Do not use medications or vitamins in the water because your pet may not drink the water if the taste or color is altered. Please remember that if your pet is eating a large quantity of greens that the water consumption may be minimal.

Vitamins/Lactobacillus/Enzymes

Vitamins are not necessary for the healthy rabbit. Rabbits will obtain all the vitamins they need from their cecotropes, grass hay and green foods and small amount of pellets. The misuse of vitamins can cause serious disease. If your pet becomes ill, particularly if he/she is unable to eat the cecotropes, then your veterinarian may prescribe vitamin therapy. Do not use supplemental vitamins in a healthy pet. In addition, rabbits on a healthy diet do not need a salt or mineral block.

Lactobacillus or acidophilus are bacteria found in the GI tracts of a number of different species. In some older texts there was a recommendation to feed rabbits yogurt (which contains active cultures of these organisms) to improve the health of the GI tract. However, there is no benefit to feeding these bacteria to the rabbit because Lactobacillus does not hold an important place in the rabbit GI tract and adult rabbits may not be able to adequately digest dairy products. Other products called probiotics, which contain bacteria more specific to the rabbit GI tract, are available but their benefits are still controversial. A rabbit on a healthy diet of grass hay and green foods should be able to maintain a normal population of bacteria without additional supplementation. We do not recommend the routine use of probiotics in the healthy rabbit.

Some older texts recommend feeding digestive enzymes to rabbits to help dissolve hairballs. This is of no benefit to the rabbit because such products do not dissolve hair and the problem is not the hair anyway. (See handout Rabbit Hairballs for more information) Although these products will not harm the rabbit, they are of no use.

Environment

Cage

House rabbits should never be kept completely confined to a cage. Exercise is vital for the rabbit’s health. All too often we hear well meaning but poorly informed people describe rabbits as easy to keep because “they can be caged and don’t take up much space!” This idea has led to many rabbits being caged most of their lives with the distinct possibility of developing both physical and behavioral disorders. They are designed to run and jump and move about a large area.

To confine a rabbit exclusively to a cage can cause several problems:

1. Obesity – caused most often by a diet too high in calories coupled with a lack of exercise 
2. Pododermatitis – inflammation of the feet caused by sitting in a damp or dirty environment 
3. Poor bone density – Rabbits that are continually confined to a small cage can exhibit marked thinning of the bones, which may lead to more easily broken bones when handling 
4. Poor muscle tone – If the rabbit can’t exercise, the muscles, including the heart, will be underdeveloped and weak 
5. Gastrointestinal and urinary function – A rabbit that sits all day in the cage with little exercise can develop abnormal elimination habits. 
6. Behavioral problems – Continually caged rabbits can exhibit a wide range of abnormal behaviors including lethargy, aggression, continual chewing of the cage bars, chewing fur (obsessive grooming), and destruction of the entire contents of the cage.

A cage can be used as a home base for part of the day or it can be open all the time within an exercise area. The cage should allow the rabbit to stand up on his hind legs without hitting the top of the cage, provide a resting area, and have space for a litter box. It should be easy to clean and indestructible, so metal is probably the best choice. The floor can be solid or wire.(I prefer a combination with each type of flooring available.) Keep the cage in a well ventilated, cool area. Basements are often too damp, which can promote respiratory disease. If you must house your pet in a basement, use a dehumidifier and a fan to improve the air quality. The optimum temperature range for a rabbit is 60F to 70F. When the temperature rises into the mid 70s, you may see drooling and a clear nasal discharge. If temperatures reach the upper 80s and beyond, especially if the humidity level is high, there exists a potential for a fatal heat stroke. On hot days when air conditioning is not available, leave a plastic milk jug filled with frozen water in the cage for use as a portable air conditioner.

Rabbits can be caged outdoors if they are provided with a shelter to protect them from rain, heat and cold. In addition, make sure the cage is secure from predators such as dogs, coyotes and raccoons and is kept clean so it won’t attract parasitic insects. In the winter, use straw bedding in the sheltered area for insulation and make sure that the water bowl is changed daily. Your pet can dehydrate rapidly if the water is frozen for more than a day.

Exercise Area

It is vital to the health of your pet to provide an exercise area where your rabbit can roam for a few hours every day. The easiest way to accomplish this is to use exercise fencing panels sold for dogs. These can be found at most pet stores. Buy fencing that is at least three feet high for small and medium rabbits and four feet high for giant breeds. These panels are easily put together with metal pins and can be configured to any size or shape needed. The pen keeps your bunny away from furniture, electrical cords and toxic materials.

The pen can also be used outside as a moveable enclosure to allow your pet access to grassy areas. Never leave a rabbit outside in a pen unsupervised because dogs, cats and raccoons may be able to knock down the fencing or climb over it and harm your pet. Indoors, if you need to protect the floor under the pen you can use a sheet of no-wax flooring, which is available at most hardware stores. It can be easily cleaned and rolled up when not in use.

Litter Box

Rabbits can be litter box trained relatively easily. When beginning training, confine your pet in a small area, either in a cage or a blocked off section of the room, and place a litter box in the corner; try to pick the corner your pet has already used for her toilet. Make sure the sides of the box are low enough so your pet can get in and out easily. It is helpful to put some droppings in the litter box. Some people have also found it helpful to put some hay in the box to encourage defecation there as rabbits usually pass stool while they are eating. In exercise areas, provide one more litter box then the number of rabbits you have and put newspaper or plastic under the litter box to protect your floors from accidents. Never punish your pet while in the litter box.

Pelleted litter makes the best bedding and is preferred over wood shavings, corncob and kitty litter. Pelleted litters are non-toxic and digestible if eaten, draw moisture away from the surface which keeps it drier, control odor well and can be composted. Do not use clay or clumping kitty litter. We have had cases where rabbit ate these products and died from an intestinal impaction. There are a wide variety of pelleted beddings available through pet stores, veterinarians and rabbit clubs.  (I like softer litter than pelleted, especially in buns that spend a lot of time in the litter box.)

Rest/Hide Area

The ancestors of our pet rabbits would have spent a good portion of their day in protected underground burrows. Our pet rabbits retain the same need to have a protected area in which they feel safe and secure. Some rabbits are content to sit in a box full of hay, others like a completely enclosed box in which to hide. Try providing places to hide, such as untreated wicker or straw baskets, litter pans or other shallow boxes filled with hay, cardboard boxes with an entrance hole and the bottom removed, or large cardboard tubes. (Don’t forget the new Oxbow structures, which can be used as edible toys as well.)

Use your imagination! If the cage has a wire floor, provide a solid area on which the pet can rest. Use material that is washable or disposable and absorbent. Some examples might be fake fleece (not long fur) found in fabric stores or absorbent baby blankets (not terry cloth towels). Do not use carpet squares because they are not absorbent, they are abrasive to the feet, and they can not be thoroughly cleaned. (Also carpet can be eaten, which is the number one cause of obstruction.)

Toys

Rabbits get a fair amount of mental exercise from their diet of grass hay and green foods, but additional toys are appreciated. Rabbits like to chew, so give them branches from untreated trees (dry the wood for at least a month to prevent any adverse reactions to the sap), wooden chew toys designed for birds, or unfinished unpainted wicker or straw baskets. They like things that make noise such as keys on an unbreakable key holder, empty plastic or metal cans, hard plastic baby toys and jar lids. They like things that both move and can be chewed such as toilet paper or paper towel rolls, small empty cardboard cartons and small piles of shredded paper.  To make a toy more interesting, you can hide in it healthy treats, as described in the diet section, or stuff hay in hiding areas, toilet paper rolls and old tissue boxes.  Giving the rabbit a sense that he or she is foraging for food is an excellent mental activity. They like air-filled balls they can nose around.

Handling

There are a number of ways to pick up your pet depending on how calm she is and her size. The main thing to remember is to always support the hindquarters to prevent serious spinal injuries. Rabbit backbones are fragile and can fracture if the hind legs are allowed to dangle and the animal then gives one strong kick. Unfortunately these injuries are usually permanent and frequently result in euthanasia, so prevention is the best policy. Never pick up a bunny by her sensitive ears because it’s painful and totally unnecessary! It is better to grasp the loose skin over the shoulders or scoop up under the chest and then place your other hand under the back legs to lift your bunny from the floor. Work near the floor when first learning to handle your pet so that if she jumps out of your arms there isn’t a chance for a fall.

Ask your veterinarian or an experienced rabbit handler about other methods used to handle rabbits. Some restraint methods are particularly useful when your rabbit needs to be medicated. Wrapping your pet securely in a towel is one easy method and your veterinarian can instruct you on the proper procedure.

Medical Problems

We have many handouts available that cover medical problems encountered by pet rabbits in detail. I encourage you to ask your veterinarian for information on a specific topic that interests you. As mentioned before, the number one group of diseases that we see in rabbits is caused by an inappropriate diet and is often preventable. The following is a brief discussion of a few of the medical conditions that you should be aware of.

Spay/Castration

Uterine adenocarcinoma is a malignant cancer that can affect female rabbits over two years of age (although I have seen it in an 18-month old rabbit). The best prevention for this disease is to remove the reproductive organs (ovaries and uterus) in a surgical procedure commonly called a spay. The procedure can be performed in females over four months of age. Spaying a rabbit also prevents pregnancy and can help control some aggressive behavior.

Male rabbits can also develop disease of the reproductive organs (the testicles) but with much less frequency than females. However, some male rabbits have a tendency to become aggressive in their adolescence (8-18 months of age) and can also start spraying urine on vertical surfaces outside the toilet area to mark their territory. Surgical removal of the testicles, called castration, can control these behaviors if it is done before the behavior occurs or shortly thereafter. Male rabbits can be neutered anytime after four months of age.

Consult our handouts To Neuter or Not to Neuter and Taking the Fear out of Rabbit Anesthesia and Surgery for more information on this topic.

Dental Disease

Dental disease can be the result of a variety of factors including trauma to the face, genetics (jaw is too short or malformed such as seen in the lop-eared breeds of rabbits), nutritional disease, infectious disease and diet. Rabbit ancestors ate a diet that was tough and abrasive, therefore they developed teeth that grew throughout their lives. Without this constant dental growth, the teeth would wear down quickly and the rabbit would be unable to eat and eventually die. Any condition that causes a rabbit’s teeth to be worn down improperly or causes mal-alignment can result in serious dental disease.

The best prevention for dental disease is a healthy diet including grass hay and green foods. But even with this good diet, some rabbits develop disease due to other factors, particularly genetics. The treatment of dental disease is based on the cause and severity of illness. Your rabbit should have a dental examination performed by a veterinarian at least once a year. You should never attempt to trim a rabbit’s overgrown teeth without consulting your veterinarian. An improperly performed tooth trim can lead to serious dental disease. Consult our Rabbit Dental Disease handout for more information.

Loss of Appetite

Rabbits are little eating machines and if you notice that your pet has changed his eating habits, there is cause for concern. The most common reason a rabbit stops eating is in response to pain. If every day you give a small amount of a healthy treat that your rabbit loves, as outlined in the Diet Section, you will quickly know when your rabbit’s appetite is changing.

The rule of thumb regarding the seriousness of the loss of appetite is:

• Loss of appetite but otherwise acting normal should be investigated within 48 hours. Some rabbits may go through a slow down and then pick up again in a day. The key here is that the rabbit is still active and alert, and is still producing stools 
  
• Loss of appetite accompanied by obvious lethargy or depression should be considered an emergency and should be investigated immediately. This can be a sign of an intestinal obstruction or toxin ingestion. Another important sign is that no stools are being produced.

Respiratory Signs

Rabbits can exhibit sneezing, coughing and excess tearing. Not all these signs are related to respiratory disease. Common environmental causes include perfumes, sprays, cooking fumes, ammonia fumes from accumulated urine in toilet area, fabric softener on bedding, dust, poor air circulation, damp environment and hot environment. Dental disease can also cause signs that may mimic respiratory disease, such as excessive tearing that stains the eyes. Please consult your veterinarian if your pet is showing these signs.

“Hairballs”

Hairballs are often cited as a reason for rabbits to stop eating. The problem is not hair in the stomach (which is always in a normal rabbit’s stomach due to grooming) but abnormalities in GI tract motility. A rabbit on a healthy diet with lots of grass hay and other foods as described in the diet section will not have a problem with hairballs.

The only exception is that, rarely, longhaired breeds of rabbits such as Angoras and Jersey Woolys, can accumulate an abnormal amount of hair in their stomachs even if they are on a good diet. Brush these breeds regularly to prevent the ingestion of large amounts of long hair. Remember that these rabbits do not have the normal rabbit haircoat of the ancestral rabbit so we humans have artificially created this problem! Consult our handout on Rabbit Hairballs for more information.

Diarrhea

True diarrhea, where all the stool being passed is purely liquid, is rare in the pet rabbit eating a healthy diet. More commonly we see a situation where the rabbit has both normal and soft pudding-like stools in the toilet area. This is not diarrhea, but a problem with GI motility usually caused by an inappropriate diet. You can read more about this in our handout Intermittent Soft Stools in Rabbits.

If you should notice true diarrhea in your pet, you should consider it an emergency situation and consult your veterinarian immediately.

Urinary Disease

The normal color of rabbit urine can range from yellow to dark orange-red. The color comes from plant pigments in the food or from normal pigments produced in the wall of the bladder. The urine can be clear or cloudy with a white precipitate. The white precipitate is excess calcium excreted through the urine. Rabbits can develop disease of the bladder or kidneys and may exhibit signs such as blood in the urine, straining to urinate, inappropriate or frequent urination, or the complete inability to urinate. If your pet is exhibiting any of these signs, consult your veterinarian immediately.

The best prevention for urinary disease is an adequate water intake, which is accomplished through the feeding of green foods and providing fresh water daily. See our handout Bladder Stones and Bladder Sludge in Rabbits for more information.

Urine from healthy animals is typically considered to be of little to no risk to people. This is generally true, at least for the otherwise healthy human population, but like with most things in infectious diseases, there are exceptions. An interesting one in rabbits is a bug called Encephalitozoon cuniculi. This microorganism (now classified as a fungus, but previously considered a protozoal parasite) is very common in healthy pet rabbits. In fact, the majority of rabbits has antibodies against E. cuniculi and may have it living in their bodies, particularly in the kidneys. It can cause infection of the brain, and is an important cause of neurological disease in rabbits, but more often than not it lives within the rabbit without causing any problems. Rabbits can shed spores of this organism is their urine, although they mainly do this only in the first few weeks after they’ve become infected, and shedding after that may be intermittent.

E. cuniculi is one of a group of microorganisms that became much more important when the HIV/AIDS epidemic hit. While rarely a cause of disease in people in the pre-HIV era, E. cuniculi is recognized as a potential cause of infection in people with compromised immune systems, particularly people with AIDS. Infections of people with normal immune systems are extremely rare.

It’s always a challenge deciding what to do with a microorganism that can be shed by a large number of healthy animals. One reference “strongly advises” routine testing of rabbits, but that makes no sense to me. Here’s why:

1. Screening always comes down to a question of what you would do with the results. If you get a positive antibody test, it means that the rabbit has been exposed sometime in its life, but that does not mean that it is necessarily still infected or shedding spores – so it’s not really convincing. 
2. Tests can be done to detect spore shedding but they are not particularly reliable. Since infected animals shed spores intermittently, a negative result here isn’t convincing either. 
3. If the animal is positive, what would you do? If the household has no immunocompromised people, I’d say do what you’ve always done, and pay attention to good hygiene. 
4. If the animal was “negative,” I’d say do what you’ve always done, and pay attention to good hygiene… same as for a positive rabbit. 
5. If there is an immunocompromised person in the house, I wouldn’t say to get rid of the pet, since there’s no evidence that’s necessary. There is also no evidence that treatment is useful to eliminate E. cuniculi shedding rabbits. If the animal is positive, immunocompromised persons should avoid contact with urine and feces, and use good personal hygiene… just as they should do if the rabbit is negative!

Dental Disease

Perhaps one of the most common causes of stasis is dental disease. For this reason it is critical that you allow your veterinarian to perform a thorough physical examination, including a detailed dental exam, on your rabbit at least once a year. As your rabbit ages or if he has had dental disease in the past it is possible that your vet will advise that your rabbit’s teeth be examined more frequently. Additionally, any rabbit experiencing GI stasis should have a dental exam as part of the work up. There are many different types of dental disease, from the growth of relatively minor molar points (or spurs), through severe dental abscesses and potentially compromised jaw bones. It is important to note that certain types of dental disease can only be detected with radiographs (X-rays) and/or a sedated oral examination.

Gastrointestinal Disease

Many types of gastrointestinal disease can contribute to anorexia and stasis in rabbits. When this occurs the stasis is known as primary GI stasis. One of the most common causes of primary GI stasis is a poor quality diet. Rabbits have a large fiber requirement, and the bulk of their diet should consist of high quality grass hay. In younger, and in some geriatric rabbits, alfalfa hay is recommended as it is higher in protein and calories as well as calcium. GI stasis is likely to occur in rabbits fed only pellets, or worse yet those fed diets high in sugar and starch, as occurs with rabbits fed oats and/or cereal. Other types of GI disease can cause stasis and these diseases will likely require blood tests, radiographs and various fecal tests to accurately diagnose.

Kidney and Bladder Disease

Kidney and/or bladder disease are perhaps the third most common cause of GI stasis in rabbits. It is believed that the pain and possible toxin buildup in the case of kidney disease lead to anorexia and secondary stasis. Diagnosis may be straightforward in the case of bladder stones, which can be readily palpated at times. However, generally speaking a diagnosis of stasis secondary to kidney or bladder disease will require a detailed physical exam, complete blood work, radiographs and a urinalysis. Depending on the underlying case many of these rabbits will recover their appetite and have resolution of their urinary system disease with appropriate veterinary care.

Reproductive Disease

The vast majority of rabbit owners know the importance of having female rabbits spayed. It has been reported that up to 80% of unspayed female rabbits will develop uterine disease in their lifetime. Sadly, most of these cases will involve the development of potentially fatal uterine cancer or aneurysms.  Usually the first symptom noticed by owners is seeing blood in the urine or on the rabbit’s back end. However, an equally common initial symptom is GI stasis secondary to the uterine pathology. A tentative diagnosis may be achieved based on the pet’s history and symptoms; however a detailed physical exam, radiographs and potentially exploratory surgery (which may be curative if the rabbit is spayed) may be required.

Toxicoses and Lead Paint

It is uncommon for well-cared for rabbits to gain access to toxins. However, after practicing in New York City for several years I have seen many cases of GI stasis secondary to low-grade, chronic lead intoxication. These pets invariably live, or have lived, in buildings built before 1978. That was the year in which the sale of lead paint was banned in the United States. Many rabbits with lead poisoning are “free-range” rabbits. They spend their day out of an enclosure and have the run of the house. Owners may or may not be aware of their rabbits chewing at baseboards, door frames or walls. When lead poisoning is suspected, many owners will state that their home is lead free, even if it was built before 1978. These owners often erroneously believe that renovations and fresh paint means that the lead-based paint has all been removed. This is almost never the case; more often than not the renovations simply cover deeper layers of lead-based paint.

Lead toxicosis appears differently in rabbits than in cats and dogs, and it is unlikely that a non-rabbit savvy vet will suspect this condition. In dogs and cats symptoms are often pronounced, and many times include overt neurological disease. It appears that rabbits are more sensitive to low levels of lead in the blood, perhaps because of their complicated gastrointestinal system. In my experience, lead-poisoned rabbits often demonstrate GI stasis, weight loss and anorexia of several days to weeks’ duration. The symptoms may wax and wane, but no other cause of GI stasis can be found. Lead levels are often in the high normal to low toxic range for dogs. With appropriate treatment the vast majority of these patients make a full recovery.

Conclusion

GI stasis can vary from relatively simple condition for your rabbit vet to diagnose and treat, through one of any number of more complicated and serious medical conditions. You should always seek help from an experienced rabbit vet as soon as your rabbit has showed decreased appetite, or anorexia of 12-hours or more. Owners may not always notice their rabbit’s appetite, and as such decreased fecal production may be the first clue to GI stasis. Once this is noticed a veterinarian should be contacted immediately.

Infection with RHDV causes lesions throughout internal organs and tissues, particularly the liver, lungs and heart that result in bleeding. The blood has difficulty clotting, which contributes to the bleeding because clotting stops bleeding. Bleeding may be internal only or you may see it. Mortality rates ranging from 5 to 70% have been reported for RHDV2. The rabbit may develop a fever and then die within 36 hours. Death usually occurs either from liver failure or hemorrhage. At death, they may have a blood-stained, frothy nasal discharge.

The time from infection to first signs may be as long as 9 days. Infected animals may appear dull and be reluctant to eat; have congested membranes around the eyes; show signs of nervousness, incoordination or excitement; seizures; and/or make paddling movements. They may have trouble breathing.

Rabbits can contract the virus through contact with infected rabbits or with other animals or materials — such as food, water, bedding and vehicles — that have been in contact with infected animals. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, just a tiny amount, possibly even just a few virus particles, is enough to cause infection. The virus is highly stable and can remain active for months in varied temperatures and over distances, enabling it to be spread by biting insects.

In the U.S., it began as a disease of domestic rabbits. The first verified cases of RHDV2 in wild rabbits in the U.S. was when five desert cottontails and one black-tailed jackrabbit in New Mexico tested positive in April 2020. Later, deaths were noted in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico. The deceased rabbits were lying out in the open, suggesting that they had died quickly. RHDV is endemic in Australia and New Zealand, where it was introduced illegally to control the wild rabbit population, as well as in Cuba, parts of Asia, Africa and much of Europe. Outbreaks also have occurred in domestic rabbits in the Middle East.

Subtypes

There are several strains of RHDV. The calicivirus is seen in three forms.

Peracute

Without having appeared ill at all, infected rabbits are found dead, often with a bloody discharge from their nose or genitourinary tract (the organs that produce and excrete urine plus the reproductive ones). Sometimes the rabbit’s mouth and stomach are full of material that is supposed to be in the digestive tract. Because rabbits have such a rapid digestive system, the appearance of this material in their mouths means the disease moves rapidly.

Acute Form

Over a 12-hour period, rabbits become lethargic and depressed and are not interested in eating. A low-grade fever begins, and discharge is seen from the eyes and nose. Oftentimes neurologic signs can be seen, including incoordination, mental dullness, lameness in a back leg, tremors, paddling, seizures, and back spasms. Oftentimes they will be found lying down. They get sick quickly, have trouble breathing, and their heart beats too quickly. Because they are not getting enough oxygen, their mucous membranes, such as gums, can turn blue.

When they are near death, blood comes from openings in the body, notably the nose and urinary/fecal outlet. Death in the acute form often occurs within 24-72 hours from onset, at least in studies.

The “subacute to chronic” form is similar to the acute one but is less severe and death is possible within one to two weeks after infection.

Asymptomatic Form

The classic RHDV strain causes an infection without any symptoms in kits younger than 8 weeks of age. Despite a few bloody noses, these kits thrive even with the infection. They end up having life-long immunity to the particular strain they had, but not to any others.

Transmission

According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, a very low dose, possibly as little as a few viral particles, is enough to cause infection. The virus is highly stable, especially in organic materials, and can remain viable for months in varied temperatures and over distances, enabling it to be spread by biting insects.

Infected rabbits have to be isolated from all other rabbits. They cannot transmit it to animals other than rabbits, so you and your non-rabbit pets are safe. RHD can get in through the mouth, eyes, eyelids, or nose. Bodily fluids and feces of an infected rabbit are thought to contain the virus. The virus can be transmitted from a dead rabbit, and even the fur may be infectious.

The rabbits who survive can shed the virus for at least a month afterwards and has been seen in seemingly healthy rabbits 15 weeks later. Be sure to talk to your veterinarian about when your recovered rabbit can join the others in your home.

Diagnosis

RT-PCR tests are often used for diagnosis. Tests to detect viral antigens are available.

Treatment

Treatment is limited to supportive care, such as IV fluids and medications to treat specific symptoms.

Prevention

There are vaccines being developed. In the U.S., Medgene Labs has received emergency use authorization for their experimental RHDV2 vaccine from the USDA Center for Veterinary Biologics (CVB). The best prevention is not sharing equipment with other rabbit owners and regularly disinfecting all your rabbit equipment, such as waterers, feeders, and toys. You can inactivate the virus with 4-10% sodium hydroxide or 1-2% formalin.

Stones are most commonly found in the bladder, where they are called bladder stones, and in the urethra. If stones get stuck in the urethra or ureters, they can obstruct the flow of urine, resulting in a life-threatening situation.

If your guinea pig is showing any signs of a urinary problem, get them to a veterinarian as soon as possible.

Causes

We do not completely understand what causes urinary stones, but several risk factors may play a role. Because most guinea pigs’ urinary stones contain calcium, diets with lots of high-calcium foods such as alfalfa hay may be somewhat responsible. Other factors may include long-term dehydration, genetic predisposition, urinary tract infections, obesity, inactivity, poor hygiene, kidney disease and urine retention, or a neurologic disorder.

Why are urinary stones so common in guinea pigs?

Unlike most mammals, guinea pigs get rid of excess calcium mainly through their urine. Thus, their urine is concentrated with calcium, which may make them more prone to developing calcium-containing stones. Guinea pigs also normally produce alkaline urine, which can make them more likely to form stones, particularly in view of the aforementioned risk factors.

Signs

Signs will vary depending on the size and location of the stone(s), but sometimes guinea pigs won’t show any signs. Your guinea pig may have bloody urine and strain to urinate, which owners often incorrectly think is constipation. Other signs that indicate pain and discomfort include loudly grinding teeth, a hunched posture, and vocalizing while urinating. Your guinea pig may produce very little to no urine, stop eating and lose weight, and seem depressed and less active than usual. If you notice any of these signs, bring your guinea pig to a veterinarian as soon as possible.

Diagnosis

For diagnosis, your veterinarian will use a history of your guinea pig’s problem, physical examination findings, and further tests, including X-rays. X-rays can confirm that your guinea pig has them and determine where they are. Your veterinarian may also take a urine sample to check for calcium-containing crystals and signs of a urinary tract infection, which as mentioned can occur with stones. They can also test the sample to confirm whether red urine really is due to blood because sometimes healthy guinea pigs can produce pigmented urine without any bleeding. Your veterinarian may also run blood tests to check on kidney function, look for other abnormalities, and assess overall health.

Treatment

Your veterinarian may want to pursue some of many treatment options, depending on the size and location of the stone(s), your pet’s current status, and what is feasible for you. Surgery is considered the standard of care for large or painful stones. Bladder stones are removed through a procedure called a cystotomy, during which the bladder is cut open and the stones are taken out.

If stones are in the urethra, they can be flushed back into the bladder and removed during the same procedure. Your veterinarian will slide a flexible tube called a catheter into the urethra and pour fluid through it to put pressure on the stone to move, just like hosing rocks off a driveway. If the stone won’t budge, your veterinarian may need to cut open the urethra. Female guinea pigs have such short urethras that sometimes stones can be removed non-surgically using specialized equipment. If your guinea pig has stones in the kidneys or ureters, your veterinarian may recommend bringing them to a surgeon who has the equipment for these procedures.

After surgery, X-rays will be taken to ensure all the stones were removed. Your guinea pig will be given pain medication and fluids. If a urinary tract infection was found on the urine sample, antibiotics may be given. Your guinea pig will need to be hydrated and urinating on their own before being sent home with you.

Some non-surgical techniques may be recommended depending on the situation. If a stone is small (less than 5 millimeters), it could pass on its own. In these cases. Or in cases where surgery is not possible, conservative treatment, such as pain meds, fluids, antibiotics, and careful monitoring (periodic X-rays, checking for blood in the urine, etc.) may be options. Sometimes, a guinea pig won’t have developed stones yet but already has sludge in the bladder. Sludge is crystals in the urine before they form into stones. Sludge may be removed from the bladder through a process called bladder flushing, where your veterinarian pushes fluid through a catheter into the bladder, massages the bladder to mix the sludge and the fluid, then squeezes the bladder to push out the sludge mixture through the catheter. If this method is unsuccessful at removing all the sludge, a cystotomy may yet be necessary.

Prognosis

Even with successful treatment, stones commonly recur in guinea pigs, so it is important to take preventive measures after they are removed.

Generally, the prognosis is considered excellent for bladder stones or sludge, but not as good for stones in the urethra. The prognosis for a urinary obstruction is considered poor, but if diagnosed and managed quickly enough, treatment can be successful.

Prevention

Nothing can 100% guarantee your guinea pig won’t get urinary stones. Nonetheless, the measures listed below may reduce the risk and be worth pursuing, especially if your guinea pig has already had a stone. Recurrence is common.

Diet: Because most urinary stones contain calcium, your guinea pig’s diet should have just the right amount of calcium: enough, but not too much. You can get this balance by avoiding high-calcium foods, such as alfalfa hay, kale, dandelion greens, and spinach. A guinea pig’s diet ideally consists of unlimited amounts of timothy hay, which is low in calcium, along with a smaller amount of timothy hay-based pellets and fresh, leafy green or colored vegetables.

Water: Because chronic dehydration is a risk factor, your guinea pig must stay hydrated. Provide water at all times through multiple sources. Giving your guinea pig wet vegetables and spraying veggies with water can also help.

Exercise: Your guinea pig should get sufficient exercise and play time. The activity may help keep the urine in the bladder moving so that crystals don’t settle and form into stones.

Cage hygiene: Your guinea pig’s living environment should be kept clean to prevent urinary tract infections.

Medications: Your veterinarian may recommend certain medications to reduce the risk of forming more stones. One possibility is potassium citrate; it is given by mouth and binds calcium in the urine, preventing it from crystallizing and coalescing into urinary stones. Some veterinarians may also suggest using a diuretic called hydrochlorothiazide. This drug, also given by mouth, increases urine volume, thus diluting calcium and potentially reducing the risk of forming stones. However, if you use this medication, you must make sure you have multiple sources of water available for your guinea pig at all times. It is necessary to prevent dehydration from so much water being lost in the urine.

Urinary stones are a common and potentially life-threatening problem in guinea pigs. Learn to recognize the signs and bring your guinea pig to a veterinarian as soon as possible if you notice anything wrong.

Guinea pigs with a slight vitamin C deficiency may show no visible signs of disease; however, their immune system may be compromised leading to decreased ability to fight off other illnesses.

The amount of vitamin C required by adult guinea pigs is about 20-25 mg/day and up to 30-40 mg/ day for pregnant guinea pigs. Guinea pig pellets are fortified with vitamin C. However, because vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin it loses its potency over time and guinea pig pellets usually have a shelf life of 90 days after the manufacturing date. After this time, the value of the vitamin C can diminish greatly. Many pet guinea pigs have been diagnosed with a vitamin C deficiency even though they were on a good quality guinea pig pellet. Timothy and other hays should be the foundation of any guinea pig diet. Herbivores require this source of food for good digestion, good movement of food through their system and for dental health maintenance. Unfortunately, the vitamin C content of grasses, grass hays, and legume hays like alfalfa is very low. So how do we get this important nutrient into our pets?

Supplements

Some sources still recommend putting vitamin C in the drinking water either by grinding up tablets and dissolving them or by using vitamin C syrup. However, this is not the most effective way of supplementation due to several problems. The most serious problem is that vitamin C supplements in the water change its taste, and the guinea pig may not drink enough water to get adequate amounts. When this happens, not only do guinea pigs not get enough vitamin C, but they may not drink enough water leading to mild to moderate dehydration. Chronic dehydration may lead to other medical problems such as urinary tract disease. Another issue with vitamin C supplementation of the water involves the stability of the vitamin. Vitamin C is degraded quickly in light, heat, and moisture. Most water bottles are clear so they let in light. It is estimated that after about 8 hours, the amount of active vitamin C in the water is only 20% of the original amount added. For these reasons, adding vitamin C to guinea pig’s drinking water is not recommended.

The best way to supplement vitamin C is either through vitamin C tablets or liquids given directly to the guinea pig or through the fresh foods they eat. Abbott and Proctor and Gamble make flavored vitamin C liquids for children. Abbott’s product (Cecon) is considered by the company to be stable for 3 years from the date of manufacture (1). Proctor and Gamble states that Vicks C drops is stable for 2 years from date of manufacture (1). Other companies have flavored tablets that are listed on the label as being good for about 2 years from date of manufacture (e.g. Kirkman Labs). Oxbow company makes a vitamin C tablet (GTN-50C) for guinea pigs. These tablets are flavored and accepted by many pets as treats. Each tablet contains 50 mg of encapsulated vitamin C. Oxbow states the vitamin C is stable for 1 year from the date of manufacture1. Always be sure to check the expiration date of the product used and do not use past that date.

When using preparations of vitamin C rather than fresh foods, it is important to be sure your pet accepts the treats. Experimenting with different flavors will help you see what your guinea pig enjoys. The tablets can be given by hand if accepted or crushed and sprinkled on a special green (moistened) they like. The liquids can either be given by dropper or syringe (if accepted easily). If you have to fight to get your pet to take the liquid, try something else. Try different methods of feeding different supplements and see what works for you. A trial of a week for each method will give you a good idea what will work and what will not.

Fresh Foods Rich in Vitamin C

Probably the best and perhaps the healthiest way for your guinea pig to get a proper amount of vitamin C per day is through feeding fresh foods that are rich in vitamin C. The foods mentioned below are not only rich in vitamin C but also in a variety of other vitamins and trace minerals. In addition, chewing on these foods is good for the teeth and allows for variety in their diet. A varied diet can be mentally stimulating and is actually an environmental enrichment.

Many foods contain vitamin C. The foods that contain the highest levels of vitamin C per weight of food item are considered vitamin C-rich. However, to supplement a guinea pig with vitamin C, we must also consider the acceptability of the food item to the pig. Unlike children, we cannot make them stay at the dinner table until they have cleaned their plate. We also have to consider whether the vitamin C rich food item is appropriate for an herbivore like the guinea pig.

The first site consulted was the USDA’s report on vitamin C content. For food items not analyzed raw by the USDA, we consulted a web site called Nutrition Data. This web site correlated well with the USDA site on many food analyses and was deemed reliable.

Below you will find a table listing what the authors consider to be excellent, good, fair, and poor choices for vitamin C supplementation in guinea pigs. In this chart, you will find the food item (first column) and the amount of that item needed to provide your pet with 25 mg vitamin C per day (fourth column).

The authors debated about including the items considered a poor source of vitamin C in this article. However, many owners feed these items as treats. For this reason, we opted to make mention of some very poor choices of vitamin C sources. Since we started this list by perusing the USDA report for foods with no less than 30mg vitamin C per measure, if you do not see a food on this list, it is likely to be a very poor source of vitamin C. However, if there is any doubt, consult the web sites above and search for your food item. All foods mentioned are raw unless otherwise noted.

Please do not forget to feed your guinea pig hay, dark leafy greens and vitamin C. A balanced diet rich in vitamin C is the best thing you can provide for your pet.

The USDA provides a large nutrient database for vitamin C. 

Enjoy feeding vitamin C and enriching the diet and life of your pig!

(1) These figures regarding stability were obtained through contact with each company’s technical service department.

EXCELLENT Choice for Supplementing Guinea Pig Diet

Food Item	Weight orVolume of Food	Vitamin C in weight orvolume of food	Amount needed toprovide 25 mg/day
Guava	1 cup = 165 mg	377 mg	1.1 tbsp
Red Peppers	1 cup chopped = 149 g	190 mg	2.1 tbsp chopped
Kale	1 cup chopped = 67 g	80.4 mg	5 tbsp (1/3 cup)
Mustard tendergreens	1 cup chopped = 150 g	195 mg	2.1 tbsp chopped
Parsley	1 cup = 60 g	79.8 mg	5 tbsp (1/3 cup)
Broccoli	1 cup chopped = 91 g	81.2 mg	5 tbsp (1/3 cup)
Broccoli flowerets	1 cup = 71 g	66.2 mg	6 tbsp (between 1/3 and 1/2 cup)
Broccoli leaves	1 oz = 28 g	26.1 mg	2 tbsp
Broccoli stalks	1 oz = 28 g	26.1 mg	2 tbsp
Lambsquarter	1 oz = 28 g	22.4 mg	2.2 tbsp
Cauliflower	1 floweret = 13 g	6.0 mg	About 4 flowerets

GOOD Choice for Supplementing Guinea Pig Diet

Food Item	Weight orVolume of Food		Vitamin C in weight orvolume of food	Amount needed toprovide 25 mg/day
Strawberry	Avg berry = 18 g	10.6 mg		About 2.5 average berries
Kiwi	1 cup = 17 g	164 mg		2.4 tbsp
Green pepper	1 cup chopped = 149 g	120 mg		3.4 tbsp chopped
Mustard greens	1 cup = 56 g	39.2mg		1/2-3/4 cup

FAIR Choice for Supplementing Guinea Pig Diet

Food Item	Weight orVolume of Food	Vitamin C in weight orvolume of food	Amount needed toprovide 25 mg/day
Kohlrabi	1 cup = 135 g	89.1 mg	Just over 1/2 cup
Papaya	1 cup = 140 g	86.5 mg	Just under 1/3 cup
Snap peas	1 cup = 98 g	58.8 mg	Just under 1/2 cup
Turnip greens	1 cup = 55 g	39.5 mg	Just under 1/2 cup
Red cabbage	1 cup = 70 g	39.9 mg	Just under 1/2 cup
Orange	Avg orange = 131 g	69.7 mg	Between 1/4 and 1/2 avg orange
Peas	1 cup = 58 mg	58 mg	About 1/2 cup
Clementines	Avg Clementine = 74 g	36.1 mg	Almost 1/2 average Clementine
Cantaloupe	1 cup balls = 177 g	65 mg	Between 1/4 and 1/2 cup of melon balls
Pineapple	1 cup chunks = 165 g	78.9 mg	1/3 cup of chunks

POOR Choice for Supplementing Guinea Pig Diet

Food Item	Weight orVolume of Food	Vitamin C in weight orvolume of food	Amount needed toprovide 25 mg/day
Dill weed	5 sprigs = 1 g	0.9 mg	154 sprigs
Dried tarragon	1 oz = 28 g	14 mg	About 4 tbsp
Dried basil	1 oz = 28 g	17.1 mg	About 3 tbsp
Dried oregano	1 oz = 28 g	14 mg	About 4 tbsp
Lemon	Avg lemon = 58 g	30.7 mg	80% of average lemon
Dried cilantro	1 tbsp = 2 g	9.9 mg	2.5 tbsp
Chinese cabbage (pak choi or bak choi)	1 cup shredded = 70.0 g	31.5 mg	Over 1/2 cup
Beet greens	1 cup = 38 g	11.4 mg	Over 2 cups
Starfruit (carambola)	Avg fruit = 91 g	31.3mg	Over 1/2 of an average starfruit
Collard greens	1 cup = 36 g	12.7 mg	2 cups
Watercress	1 cup chopped = 34 g	14.6 mg	About 1 and 1/2 cups
Grapefruit	Avg fruit = 120 g	38.5 mg	Just under grapefruit

We know that rabbits have the same neurophysiological mechanisms as humans to produce pain and therefore have the capacity to feel pain in the same manner as ourselves. Often, rabbits do not cry out or make sudden movements like humans, dogs or cats when painful areas are palpated. Signs of pain in the rabbit are often more subtle. Since rabbits are prey animals, meaning that hold a place in nature that places them in a position to be preyed upon by other animals, they have developed mechanisms to deal with that lot in life that might mask signs of illness or pain. Rabbits can become very still, pull their body up tight or lie very flat, and barely blink their eyes when they are frightened or anxious. This can give the appearance that they are “calm” to those individuals that don’t know how to read this body language. In this state rabbits may not respond to palpation of painful areas of the body or the response may be so subtle it is almost undetectable. Rabbits, like other companion animals, are being taken to veterinarians in increasing numbers. Over the last two decades there has been an explosion of knowledge about their medical and surgical care in the veterinary community. Rabbits are living longer and thus have the potential to experience the discomfort of illness or surgery at some time in their lives. Veterinarians have an increasing number of safe choices for managing pain in rabbits. The first step for pain management is to recognize the signs of pain in the rabbit.

Signs of Pain in Rabbits

Rabbits are often in a state of heightened anxiety or fear when they visit a veterinary office, particularly if they are not familiar with the office or there has been a long car ride to get there. It is more likely that signs of discomfort will be detected more readily when a rabbit is in his safe, home environment where he is not trying to spend time hiding. It is vital that caregivers learn their companion rabbit’s normal behavior and pay close attention to any changes that take place that are out of the ordinary. Reporting these changes to a veterinarian will be vital in determining care for a rabbit.

The following are signs that have been associated with pain in the rabbit. Remember that not all these signs are SPECIFIC for pain and some may also occur with nonpainful conditions. However, all these signs are abnormal and should be cause for further investigation.

• Abnormally “hunched” appearance when sitting 
• Alert but reluctant to move 
• Moves slowly or with effort 
• Eyes partially closed when there is activity around that should create interest (in a new or active environment a rabbit’s eyes should normally be open and round in shape) 
• Limping 
• Unusual or sudden aggression, particularly when handled if this was not the case before 
• Loss or decrease in appetite or water consumption 
• Tooth grinding 
• Hiding (when it is not usual behavior)/facing the corner or pressing the head in a corner 
• Shows no interest in the surroundings (loss of curiosity) 
• Crying or “grunting” when moving/defecating/urinating or being handled/examined 
• Coat is unkempt due to loss of interest in grooming 
• Taking a long time to eat 
• Dropping food out of the mouth

If moderate or severe pain is not managed in a rabbit, then over time there are a number of serious and possibly life threatening side effects that may develop which include:

• Gastric (stomach) ulcers 
• Cardiomyopathy (heart muscle disease) 
• Alterations in the gastrointestinal (GI) flora which may lead to a shut down of the GI tract or other disease
• Drop in body temperature 
• Renal ischemia (lack of blood supply causing damage to kidney)

Importance of Analgesia in Rabbits

Domestic rabbits maintain the physiology and behavior of a prey species and they experience pain in the same manner as other companion animals. Even though a rabbit may be handled frequently, he will respond to pain and stress in the same manner as his wild ancestors and as seen above if moderate to severe pain is not managed it can have serious consequences. Therefore it is ESSENTIAL that pain relief be used appropriately in rabbits in order in improve the quality of their lives and the treatment success. I believe that rabbits should be given the benefit of the doubt and if the condition that is diagnosed or the surgery that is performed would be painful in humans or other companion mammals, then it should be assumed that it is painful in rabbits and pain management should be used.

Common situations in rabbits where pain management is used include: surgical intervention, gastrointestinal disease, dental disease, trauma, and arthritis.

Analgesic Choices

There are a great many excellent and safe choices for analgesia in the rabbit. I have listed the most common ones below.

Safe, quiet, comfortable environment

I cannot say enough about providing a safe, quiet, comfortable environment for a rabbit to help minimize stress and the intensity of pain. Excessive noise, handling and lack of safety can intensify the level of pain any animal or human might be feeling. Having a hiding or safe protected area is important any time but particularly so when a bunny is not feeling well. It should be an area that is easily uncovered by the caregiver (such as an upside down cardboard box with a hole cut in the side which can be gently lifted) so the rabbit isn’t disturbed greatly when he needs to be seen. 

Keep noise to a minimum including barking dogs and running, noisy children. Don’t have a rabbit’s living area right next to the stereo or the TV. Minimize handling, especially picking up the rabbit and carrying him around while he is ill. Keeping litter boxes clean and having appropriate amounts of hay and fresh foods available is also important. Please see more about proper rabbit care.

Drugs (oral, injectable or transdermal) Opioids

These drugs are related to morphine and there are several safe and effective candidates in this category. They are most often used for bone pain and as part of a pre and post surgical pain management protocol. These drugs are most often given by injection, but some can be given orally or as a transdermal patch on the skin.

Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)

These drugs are the most commonly used analgesics and include meloxicam, carprofen and others. NSAIDs are the most common analgesics used for chronic pain. They have both analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties so they are often used with mild to moderate pain. NSAIDs appear to be well tolerated in rabbits for long periods of time. They can be given orally or by injection.

Other pain medications

There is currently investigation into many other pain medication drugs such as tramadol. It is likely that more and more drugs will become available as veterinarians report their experiences using these products and more scientific research is performed.

Drug combinations

Many times it is necessary to use more then one type of analgesic to treat a painful condition. In some cases, rabbits become resistant to the effects of a drug that has been used for a while and it may be necessary to change to a different analgesic.

Local Anesthetics

Local anesthetics can be administered in the form of topical creams or drops or by injection into the skin. The most common uses of local anesthetics in the rabbit include minor skin procedures (skin biopsies, small tumor removals, IV catheter placement), ophthalmic procedures (tear duct flushing and thorough eye exam) and nasoesophageal tube placement (the drops are put in the nose so the small tube can be placed in the awake patient without discomfort). Local anesthetics are not meant to be used for long term analgesia and their duration of action is fairly short.

Epidural Anesthesia

Epidural anesthesia is performed by injecting an anesthetic agent into the spinal fluid of a sedated rabbit which produces numbness from the injection site backwards down the spine.  This is what is commonly used currently with women experiencing childbirth. Epidural anesthesia is currently most useful to control postoperative pain after an abdominal surgical procedure, particularly GI surgery. This would be a short-term anesthesia and would have to be administered and monitored in a veterinary clinic.

Acupuncture

Acupuncture as a form of analgesia goes back thousands of years. It is well established in humans and in the veterinary community that this form of therapy can be very effective in controlling pain under certain conditions. It is a form of therapy that is worth investigating particularly for chronic or persistent pain.

Chiropractic/Acupressure/Massage

All of these modalities can have a place in relieving pain. Gentle side-to-side rocking massage of the belly can be useful particularly in cases of gastrointestinal disorders where gas is produced. Chiropractic adjustments may help joint or spinal pain and acupressure used appropriately may relieve mild to moderate pain in a variety of areas.

Conclusion

Rabbits definitely benefit from the use of analgesia in painful conditions. The humane choice is to use analgesia in the painful rabbit. It is important for caregivers to work with their veterinarian to provide important observations on how their companion rabbit is responding to analgesic treatments and to also provide the most comfortable environment for their bunny’s recovery. Rabbits deserve the same humane pain management care that we would expect for ourselves!

The word neuter refers to the removal of the reproductive organs of either a male or a female of a species, although people frequently refer to the surgery in a female as a spay. The scientific terminology for neutering in the male is castration and in the female is ovariohysterectomy. Let’s take a look at the issue of neutering and whether or not it is appropriate for your pet rabbit.

Reasons for Neutering Rabbits 

Prevention of Pregnancy

This is the most common reason that rabbits are neutered, particularly if there are both male and female rabbits living together in a household. There are certainly enough rabbits in the world and too many are neglected or abandoned. One should not consider breeding these pets just for fun or education. Be a responsible pet owner and do not breed your pet unless you are well educated on the topic and are prepared to take on all the responsibilities such activity entails.

Prevention of Uterine Cancer

This is the most compelling medical reason to neuter female rabbits. In some rabbit populations the rate of uterine adenocarcinoma (a malignant uterine cancer) can approach 80% of the females. It is believed that the incidence may be related to the rabbit’s genetic makeup. Since we usually don’t know the genetic background of most of our rabbits, it is best to have the surgery done as a preventative for this cancer. Uterine adenocarcinoma can spread rapidly to other organs of the body such as the liver, lungs and even the skin and it is not treatable once it metastasizes outside of the uterus. We see many cases of this disease each year and sadly these rabbits could have avoided this problem. Rabbits under two years of age rarely develop this disease so it is best to get your female spayed before this age.

Prevention of other Uterine Disease

Although cancer is the most common disease of the rabbit uterus, we see many cases a year of other uterine disease such as pyometra (infected uterus full of pus), uterine aneurism (uterus full of blood) and endometritis (inflamed uterine lining). Like uterine cancer, these conditions are all more common in female rabbits over two years of age.

Prevention of False Pregnancies

Female rabbits can go into a hormonal state triggered by their ovaries where the body acts as if it is pregnant but there is in fact no pregnancy. Although this is not medically harmful, it can be stressful for the rabbit who goes through all the activities of being pregnant including nest building, milk production and aggressive protection of her territory. This aggression can be taken out on the caretakers and cage mates and can make the pet difficult to handle during this period. Some rabbits experiencing false pregnancy will develop a decreased appetite and have gastrointestinal disturbances as well.

Prevention of Mammary Gland (Breast) Disease

Mammary gland cancer is not common in female rabbits, but when it occurs it can spread rapidly and be difficult to treat. It is preventable if the pet is neutered before two years of age. It is interesting to note that the most common type of mammary cancer is a malignant form called mammary carcinoma and it is almost always associated with uterine cancer. The other common mammary gland disease is mammary dysplasia or cystic mammary glands. This is a benign condition, where the mammary glands fill with a cystic material. It can be uncomfortable to the pet. Neutering a female rabbit before two years of age will prevent both of these diseases.

Prevention of Aggressive Behavior

Both male and female rabbits can display aggressive behavior when they are sexually mature. Many rabbits are sweet and easy to handle as little babies, but when the teenage years hit at around six to twelve months of age…watch out! They can become little Frankensteins almost overnight! They don’t want to be touched or picked up and they act like they want to destroy everything in sight. This is their way of learning to protect themselves, their territory and potential future families and to establish their social position in the big wide rabbit world. However, they can often take out their aggression on you or their cage mates. There may be more biting, striking, lunging and chasing. It is best to neuter just before or shortly after sexual maturity to keep this behavior to a minimum.

Prevention of Urine Spraying

Both male and female rabbits can spray urine on vertical surfaces to mark their territory. Intact mature males do this at least 10 times more frequently than females. In addition, the urine from a sexually mature male rabbit can have a strong odor that is unpleasant to many humans. If this behavior is allowed to continue for a long period of time, it may be impossible to completely stop this behavior. Therefore, it is best to nip it in the bud and get the little guys neutered just prior to or shortly after sexual maturity.

Prevention of Testicular Disease
Disease of the testicle is uncommon in the male rabbit, but it can occur. Most commonly we see abscesses (usually the result of bite wounds from other rabbits), hematomas (blood filled areas) and cancer.

Age to Neuter

The best age to neuter either a male or female rabbit is just before or shortly after sexual maturity. Depending on the breed, this time could range from four to six months in the small to medium sized breeds and up to nine months in the giant breeds. We do not recommend neutering rabbits younger than four months of age because the surgery may be more difficult due to the size and position of the reproductive organs. There is no health benefit to neutering earlier than four months of age. However, there is a benefit in females of neutering before two years of age to reduce the incidence of uterine and mammary gland disease.

Your rabbit should be examined by a veterinarian prior to surgery to make sure he is in good condition and ready for neutering. Sexual maturity can be gauged a number of ways including; visualizing testicles in the scrotal sacs, a well developed vulva, a mature body condition, and by behavioral changes such as urine spraying and increased aggression. Your veterinarian may recommend some simple tests prior to surgery, particularly if your pet is older or has had other medical problems. We do not recommend performing routine neutering procedures on obese animals or those with other disease because these rabbits are at higher risk for surgical complications. The weight should be reduced and any disease conditions managed prior to having a major elective surgical procedure performed.

What Happens at Neutering

When a male rabbit is castrated, the testicles are completely removed. There may either be one incision in front of the testicles through which both are removed, or there may be two incisions, one over each scrotal sac. The incisions may be left open which is acceptable if scrotal incisions were made, or closed with suture or surgical glue if the incision was made in front of the scrotal sacs. The scrotal sacs will swell within 24 to 48 hours after surgery but in another seven to ten days the swelling should be gone. The scrotal sacs will eventually shrink to a very small size over time. It is important to note that neutered males should not be put in contact with intact females for at least 3 weeks after neutering. Male rabbits can still have living sperm in ducts within the spermatic cord called the vas deferens, which cannot be removed during surgery. The sperm in these ducts can live for two weeks. Testosterone blood levels drop slowly after neutering and male rabbits will still try to mate with female rabbits for several weeks after the testicles are removed. After three weeks the sperm are completely dead. Since the testicles are gone, no new sperm are being produced so it is safe to put a male and female rabbit back together again. However, whenever you put two rabbits together, regardless of the circumstances you must watch closely for signs of aggression. Aggressive rabbits left unattended can cause serious and sometime fatal injuries.

When a female rabbit is neutered, the ovaries, the oviducts, the uterus and often both cervices are removed. Rabbits have a uterus that is made up of two long tubes with an ovary at one end and a cervix at the other. They have two cervices unlike cats, dogs, humans and many other species which only have one. An incision is made just below the umbilicus (belly button) and the uterus and associated structures are gently pulled out from the abdomen through this incision. The blood vessels supplying the uterus and ovaries are tied off with suture material, surgical clips or a laser and the reproductive organs are removed. The incision is sutured with two to three layers of suture material. Since rabbits have incisors that are excellent at cutting through many materials, we find it beneficial to bury the final row of sutures under the skin so they are not accessible. In this way the rabbit has nothing to chew on or pull out. These sutures dissolve eventually over several weeks and there are no external sutures to remove.

Some veterinarians are now advocating the removal of only the ovaries in female rabbits less then 2 years of age.  These veterinarians argue that uterine cancer usually occurs after two years of age and the removal of only the ovaries is a shorter and less invasive surgery and thus less stress on the rabbit.  This is still a controversial topic because it is difficult to know at exactly what time uterine cancer may start at the microscopic level.  Exotic animal veterinarians will be looking carefully over the next few years at these ovariectomy cases to see if uterine cancer was prevented during the life of the rabbit.  Consult with your veterinarian on this topic so you can make an informed decision.  However, if you have acquired an adult rabbit and you do not know the exact age of the rabbit (such as when adopting from a rescue), I highly recommend having both the uterus and the ovaries removed to be on the safe side.

Postsurgical Care 

It is important after any surgery to check the surgical site at least twice a day for any signs of bleeding, unusual swelling, discharges or opening of the wound. Many rabbits will be off feed for 24 hours after surgery, but this should gradually return to normal over the next two to three days. In addition, some rabbits will have unusual stools for a day or two including soft stools, clumped stools, and irregularly shaped or small stools. If your rabbit is acting very uncomfortable, is extremely lethargic, is not eating at all, is not producing any stools or is unwilling to move, contact your veterinarian immediately. Your veterinarian should prescribe a post-surgical pain medication for one or more days for your pet, which will help ease discomfort and shorten the recovery time. It is usually not necessary to use an antibiotic after a routine neutering.