A dog’s body language is often instinctive and happens naturally, such as trying to settle down a tense environment through actions or responding to an invitation to play. This form of communication can be used between dogs, during dog and human interactions, or between dogs and other animals. Knowing what your dog is communicating can help you understand his needs better and keep him comfortable in any given situation.

Below are some common types of body language that dogs use. It is important to recognize that many of these types of body language can mean different things in different settings and should be used in context of whatever is happening in the moment. A common example of this is panting, which could mean “I am nervous,” or “Gosh, it’s hot out,” or even “I’m tired.”

Diffusive Behaviors

These are types of body languages that dogs use to avoid conflict, help diffuse a potentially intense or threatening situation, and keep interactions from getting out of hand. Some refer to these behaviors as calming signals because, in a way, they signal to others things like “everything is ok,” “things have gotten a little too tense,” or “I am not a threat.” That being said, these types of behaviors indicate more than just calming; they communicate both how the dog is feeling and her ability to react and interact with others.

Be aware that some of these behaviors can be misinterpreted as signs of guilt, such as the slow, creeping walk towards or away from you when you correct your dog for doing something wrong. This behavior does not mean your dog is acting guilty for getting into the trash. It means she is trying to diffuse the situation and lessen the intensity of your correction. She honestly may have no clue at all why you are upset with her, and she just wants you to stop yelling.

Happy/Relaxed

1. Keeping the mouth open, often with the tongue lolling out, is typically a very relaxed posture for a dog.
2. Bowing down on the front legs, often known as a play bow, can be an invitation to play or a diffusive tool indicating that the dog is not a threat to someone or something else.
3. Tail wagging can often be content, happy, or excited body language. In certain settings, it’s important to know that tail wagging can indicate nervousness, anxiety, or an effort to diffuse a tense situation. Be mindful of what else is happening in the dog’s environment and remember that a wagging tail does not always mean a happy dog.

Anxiety/Fear/Worry

1. Cowering or making the body small, and crouching low to the ground can be a sign of fear.
2. Yawning frequently, especially when not obviously tired can be a sign of stress, fear, or anxiety. It can be a way to diffuse a tense situation the dog either finds himself in the middle of or in his immediate surroundings (e.g., other dogs fighting, intense talking amongst a dog’s owners, or being spoken to harshly by an owner).
3. Licking the lips or nose, even when no food or water is around, can be a sign of anxiety or fear. This is frequently used as a diffusive behavior.
4. Panting but not interested in water, or hot, can be a sign of fear, anxiety, or stress.
5. Combination of the ears positioned low and out to the side and the pet’s brows down or furrowed can be seen with anxiety or worry. This can often occur with other postures such as lowering the head and neck, and keeping the mouth closed. Be aware that lowering the head, neck, and ears can also be a sign of assertiveness or aggression in really tense situations, so assess what else is happening in the environment.
6. Creeping around or moving slowly when walking can be a sign of fear or anxiety. It is frequently a diffusive signal. This type of walking can also be a hunting maneuver, such as if a dog has spotted potential prey. Moving away quickly and darting around is also a sign of anxiety or fear.
7. Appearing on alert and trying to look around at everything quickly is a sign of anxiety or fear.
8. Unwillingness to eat or take a treat during a potentially stressful situation is a common sign a dog is anxious or afraid.
9. Pacing around and unwillingness to settle down in one place can be a sign of anxiety.  It can also be a sign of excitement and happiness.
10. Averting the eyes, turning the head away or to the side can be a sign of anxiety.  This can also be a diffusive tool as well, to avoid conflict or help diffuse a situation.
11. Pausing, holding position, or freezing can be a hunting behavior (sometimes called pointing), a sign of anxiety or uncertainty, or a diffusive behavior.
12. Tail tucked between the legs is often a sign of fear or anxiety and can occasionally be a diffusive behavior
13. Sniffing or snuffling along the ground can mean a great deal; it is often a way for dogs to get a feel for the environment, follow the trail of a recent inhabitant, discover signals left behind by other dogs or animals, or just enjoy the delights of nature. It can also be a sign of anxiety and a diffusive tool, such as when being approached by someone or something that may be a potential threat.
14. Raising a front paw can be a diffusive behavior or indicate anxiety/stress.
15. Rolling onto the back is often a sign of fear, although the occasional very confident dog may have learned to do so in order to get tummy rubs.
16. Barking or whining could be due to fear, anxiety, or excited/worked up. Growling could be assertiveness and/or aggression, or fear. High-pitched barking often means the dog is too excited and vocalizing to try to calm themselves down. Barking can also serve as a warning that the dog is too scared or too aggressive and a bite may come next.

Assertiveness and Aggression

These types of body language behaviors may occur in a dog attempting to use diffusive behavior that has been ignored, or may occur without initial signals such as in an overly excited/worked up or aggressive dog on high alert. Dogs that are too worked up or excited are said to be highly aroused. Assertive or aggressive posturing can frequently be seen in dogs exhibiting these body languages. Often the more aroused the dog, the more intensely she will respond to perceived threats or issues in the environment.

1. Direct eye contact is the most common initial body signal for displaying assertiveness or aggression, often when a dog is in a threatening situation. Assertiveness in combination with aggression is not always the case, of course, because your own dog may stare directly at you with his “sad, puppy dog eyes” when he wants something. Thus, other body signals or the situation itself should be evaluated (e.g., a new dog showing up) before determining if aggression is involved. In other words, a confident dog can be assertive, using body language to get what he wants, without demonstrating aggression, which involves behavior that can result in damage to someone else.
2. Pulling the lips back and displaying teeth can also be a signal of assertiveness or aggression.
3. As the dog’s perceived threat continues, holding the head, ears, and neck up initially may be seen (to make the dog appear bigger to the threat), but lowering the head and flattening the ears can be a signal that the dog feels the threat is worsening and the problem is escalating. This progression is an instinctive way to appear even larger and to protect important organs from attack.
4. The tail held straight up or curved over the back can sometimes mean a high alert or a threatening situation is occurring. Slow tail movements or rapid wagging that looks more like vibrating (known as flagging) can also be a sign the dog is feeling threatened and responding in an assertive or aggressive manner.
5. The dog’s weight may appear shifted toward the front of his body, which allows for quick action if needed.
6. The hair along the dog’s back may be standing on end, sometimes referred to as raised hackles. This can be an unconscious way of making the dog appear larger and more threatening. Hair standing on end indicates high alert and increased arousal, so it can sometimes be seen during intense play without any aggression.

A Note about Snapping and Biting

Bites have different degrees of severity, but a bite is still a bite, even if skin is not broken. A dog may snap at something without making contact; this is generally the dog’s effort at communicating a more intense warning. In this case, anxiety, fear, or aggression have been occurring and the signals have gone unnoticed. It is important to understand that generally, the dog is the one who has decided not to make contact or cause harm. Dogs are fast and can bite hard when they feel it is necessary, so take this warning snap seriously.

When an actual bite occurs, again, degrees of severity exist. Dogs can bite without drawing blood, bite superficially, or in more highly aroused states, give multiple and/or deep bites. Bites that occur without drawing blood are likely inhibited by the dog, meaning she held herself back from inflicting damage. It is important to understand that these bites and other superficial ones are still bites without major harm. They are likely to result in worse bites in the future if the dog doesn’t receive the help needed to move past the cause for the biting. Multiple and/or deep bites, those with no inhibition from the dog, means the dog bit without thought, acting on reaction alone.  Any snaps or bites require prompt assessment and assistance for the behavior issue.

In reality, urinary incontinence is usually one of the easiest problems to solve, so it is crucial that veterinary assistance be sought before an owner’s patience is completely worn out and before any permanent decisions about the pet’s future become topical.

Causes of Incontinence

It is important to differentiate incontinence (involuntary urine leakage) from behavioral urinary issues (submissive urination), simple lack of housetraining, territorial marking of anxious cats or unneutered males, or the senile loss of house training from canine cognitive dysfunction. Animals may urinate in the house voluntarily, and this is different from incontinence. Watch your pet closely to be sure what you are seeing is really incontinence, and if it is, the good news is that most cases are easily resolved with simple, inexpensive medications.

There are several important causes of incontinence, and most of these are ruled in or out with a urinalysis and urine culture. The urinalysis reveals cell types and biochemical elements in the patient’s urine, while the culture isolates the bacteria growing in the urine. The bacterial species grown are identified and tested for their sensitivity towards different antibiotics, the end result being confirmation of the presence of infection and a list of appropriate antibiotics.

Most cases of incontinence are due to:

1. Infection of the urinary tract (usually bladder infection)
2. Excessive consumption of water
3. Weak bladder sphincter (especially common in female dogs)
4. Spinal cord disease.

Other conditions that may need to be explored could include bladder stones and even tumors in the urinary tract.

Bladder Infection

This is a common cause of urinary incontinence in female dogs of all ages and in geriatric cats. This condition is usually easily diagnosed by urine culture, though signs of infection, such as white blood cells or bacteria, are actually visible in the urinalysis. A urine culture will confirm the infection, identify the organism, and list several antibiotics that will be effective. An antibiotic is selected based on expense, potential for side effects, and convenience of usage. After a short course (generally somewhere between 1 and 3 weeks) of medication, ideally, a second urine culture or urinalysis is done to confirm that the infection has truly been cleared up.

If a bladder infection is the cause of incontinence, most patients show improvement in their incontinence and comfort after only a few doses of antibiotics (but it is still important to finish the entire course so as to avoid recurrence). 

Excessive Water Consumption

Dilute urine is obvious on the urinalysis through a measurement called specific gravity that compares the amount of dissolved biochemicals in the urine to that of pure water (which has no dissolved biochemicals).

A urine specific gravity nearly the same as water, confirms excessive water consumption; blood tests may be indicated to go with the urine tests to determine the cause.

Causes of excessive water consumption include:

1. Diabetes mellitus
2. Cushing’s syndrome
3. Hyperthyroidism (cats)
4. Bladder infection (see above)
5. Diabetes insipidus
6. Kidney insufficiency

There are other causes as well but 90% are ruled in or out by a blood panel and urine culture.

Weak Bladder Sphincter

Aging, obesity, reduced sensitivity of neurologic receptors in the sphincter and possibly other factors all contribute to this condition which is especially common (up to one in five affected) in female dogs. Once other more serious conditions have been ruled out, the weak sphincter may be treated symptomatically with one of several medications.

Estrogens

It is not entirely clear how estrogens are helpful in this treatment. Originally, estrogens were given to post-menopausal women with urinary incontinence and the treatment was simply extrapolated to dogs. It is possible that estrogens are important in the maintenance of neuroreceptors in the bladder sphincter and without estrogens the receptors become unresponsive to the transmission of the storage message from higher neurologic centers. (In other words, the message from the brain to hold the urine does not get through to the bladder.)

In dogs, diethylstilbestrol (DES) has traditionally been the most common estrogen used, though it is now only available through compounding pharmacies. Other estrogens that have been used include estriol (Incurin®) and conjugated estrogens such as Premarin®.  Regardless of which product is used, the basic process is the same. A higher dose is utilized to begin therapy and, if it is effective, the dose is tapered to the lowest dose needed to maintain effect. For DES, dosing every couple of days is typical while with estriol most dogs end up dosed once daily.

In male dogs, testosterones seem to be more effective than estrogens, possibly through action on the prostate which sits at the neck of the bladder and incorporates the sphincter.

Alpha-Adrenergic Agonists

These medications act by enhancing release of the neurotransmitter chemicals that act on the receptors of bladder sphincter. Effectively, they turn up the volume dial on the “hold it” message from the high neurologic areas. The usual medication for canine use is phenylpropanolamine in chewable tablets, which is typically given two or three times daily.

Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, common decongestants, are sometimes recommended alternatively. Side effects can include irritability, appetite suppression (phenylpropanolamine was the active ingredient in many human diet pills until recently), and blood pressure changes. Most dogs, male and female alike, tolerate phenylpropanolamine uneventfully. For especially resistant cases of incontinence, estrogens and alpha-adrenergic agonists can be used together.

Anticholinergics

Anticholinergic drugs are medications that work, not on the sphincter of the bladder, but on the rest of the bladder where urine is stored, relaxing the muscle fibers thus facilitating storage. An example of such drug would be imipramine, an anti-anxiety medication commonly used in humans. It has anticholinergic properties and can be used in combination with phenylpropanolamine in the treatment of animal incontinence. While phenylpropanolamine and DES are commonly used medications for this condition, imipramine is not but it does represent another option when a patient does not respond to the first two medications combined. Other anticholinergic drugs that might be used included oxybutynin or flavoxate.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

Several studies have been performed using analogs of this hormone (such as leuprolide) in incontinent dogs for which DES and phenylpropanolamine have failed.  More than half of the dogs tested regained complete continence while still more achieved improvement.

Surgical Therapy

Medication works for most patients with weak sphincters but when medication fails there are some surgical options to consider: colposuspension and cystourethropexy.

Colposuspension, for females only, is the most commonly performed procedure. Here, the vagina is tacked to the bottom of the belly wall entrapping and compressing the urethra. In one study of dogs that had failed on medication, there was complete resolution of incontinence in 53% with colposuspension. An additional 37% became less incontinent and 25% of those without full resolution gained complete continence when therapy with phenylpropanolamine was added. Another recent study reported that complete continence lasted for 1 year in only 14% of affected dogs, although many dogs improved.

Cystourethropexy is the modification of the above procedure that can be performed in either males or females. Since there is no vagina to use in the male, the ductus deferens are tacked down to compress the urethra. Fibers from the urethral muscles can also be tacked down (in either male or female patients). Complications include an increased frequency in the need to urinate (occurring in 2/3 of the patients in one study) and straining to urinate (in about 1/3 of patients).

Urethral lengthening works for patients for whom incontinence is caused by a short urethra. A short urethra causes a full bladder to be displaced into the pelvis and makes the urethra too short for either of the other two surgical procedures. This is a newer surgical procedure that so far has had good reports in the small number of dogs in which it has been studied. Further studies should be forthcoming.

Medications listed above are used in conjunction with surgery. Surgery alone improves approximately 50% of patients but often incontinence returns unless oral medication is restarted.

Collagen Injections: The Newest Therapy

In this procedure an endoscope is inserted in the urethra and several injections of collagen (the same kind used for cosmetic injections in humans) are deposited. In a study of 40 dogs who had failed to become continent on medication alone, 27 became continent for an average of 17 months. Furthermore, 10 dogs that experienced only partial improvement after the procedure became completely continent when oral medication was added, even though medication alone had been ineffective.

The procedure can alternatively be performed with medical grade collagen, with Teflon® (which does not last as well but is apparently considerably less costly) or with a reconstructive product called ACell®. Unfortunately, at this time there are few facilities that perform this procedure as special equipment (cystoscopy) is required.

Unusual Causes of Incontinence

The list of causes of incontinence presented above is by no means exhaustive.

While uncommon, other causes should not be entirely counted out. Some possible causes include:

1. Ectopic ureter (instead of connecting to the urinary bladder, the ureter transporting urine from the kidney connects to the vagina or rectum so that there is no storage of urine. This condition is typically noted in a puppy that simply cannot be housebroken and leaks urine. The condition can be solved surgically.)
   
2. Spinal damage, especially in the lower lumbar area. Spinal surgery may be indicated to decompress an area of nerve pressure that is interfering with the nerves of urination control.

Your veterinarian is in the best position to determine if it is worthwhile to pursue a rare disease or not. Do not hesitate to ask your veterinarian questions regarding your pet’s incontinence and the treatments or procedures described above.

An umbilical hernia is a condition in which abdominal contents (fat, intestines, etc.) protrude past the abdominal wall at the location where the umbilical cord was attached to the fetus. Congenital umbilical hernias are more common in puppies than in kittens.

The umbilicus, or belly button, is where the umbilical cord attaches when the puppy or kitten is in the womb. The umbilical cord carries nutrition and oxygen from the mother to the fetus, and waste products and carbon dioxide from the fetus to the mother. Normally, after the puppy or kitten is born, the cord breaks, and the connection at the umbilicus closes up.

An umbilical hernia occurs when the hole doesn’t close correctly. When this happens, skin is the only barrier between the abdominal organs and the environment.

Umbilical hernias are diagnosed on physical examination.

Small hernias do not usually cause any problems, and are often left untreated.

Large hernias should be repaired surgically, because there is a risk that the abdominal contents inside the hernia sac could become damaged or strangulated. Strangulation of intestinal loops can cause blood flow restriction to the intestine, intestinal blockage, etc. Strangulated hernias can become life-threatening; signs can include a large, warm hernia sac; vomiting; abdominal pain; lack of appetite; and depression. Radiography or ultrasonography may be necessary to help diagnose a strangulated hernia.

As long as the hernia isn’t causing problems for the puppy/kitten, the herniorrhaphy (hernioplasty, hernia repair surgery) can be delayed until the scheduled ovariohysterectomy or neuter. However, if strangulation occurs, the surgery becomes an emergency procedure.

The exact cause of congenital umbilical hernias is unknown, but it is generally thought to be a hereditary condition.

These bacteria are anaerobic, meaning that they grow in conditions where there is no oxygen (such as a deep bite wound or puncture). Clostridia are soil bacteria, meaning that they live in dirt so it should be easy to see how a puncture contaminated with dirt would be a classical tetanus-yielding wound. Such wounds are particularly common on farms where there might be nails or bits of wire on the ground, ready to pierce a human or animal foot, but there is nothing special about rusted metal in predisposing to tetanus. The puncture can come from any pointed object. The pointy object provides the puncture (an anaerobic wound) and contamination with dirt provides the Clostridia. A fight involving a bite wound and rolling around in dirt might similarly offer an opportunity for tetanus.

Different animal species have different sensitivity to the tetanus toxin. Horses, humans, and livestock are more sensitive while cats are quite resistant and almost never get infected. We will be confining our discussion primarily to dogs.

The Course of the Disease

The tetanus toxin is called tetanospasmin. It is produced by the bacterium Clostridium tetani in a wound. The toxin binds to local nerves and migrates up into the central nervous system where it interferes with the release of glycine and GABA, both of which are inhibitory neurotransmitters. The result of this loss of inhibition is painful muscle over-activity, spasms and rigidity. In severe cases, the patient cannot breathe because of the rigid paralysis of the respiratory muscles and a mechanical ventilator is required. As a human disease, tetanus has been known and described since ancient times. In the modern world, human death is unusual and is mostly limited to infants and to the elderly, but even in these groups mortality is only 10-15 percent.

Dogs with ears that hang down may actually develop ears that stand up straight, and the facial muscles pull back in such a way as to create what is called the risus sardonicus or sardonic smile. In more advanced stages, the patient can no longer walk and stands stiffly in what is called a sawhorse stance.

In an advanced state of disease, the patient cannot walk or even sit up and is at risk for aspiration of saliva or food contents. If the jaws are locked, feeding may be impossible and if the respiratory muscles become involved, the patient will not be able to effectively breathe.

In dogs, a localized tetanus is more common than the generalized (whole body form) and only the limb nearest the original wound becomes rigid or will tremor. This is an easier form to treat compared to the more generalized; however, the localized form can spread and become the generalized form.

In the generalized form, initial signs seem to pertain to the eyes and can easily be mistaken for eye disease in the early stages.

Testing

There is no test for tetanus in the way you might hope: no blood test or unique finding. The diagnosis is generally made based on the appearance of the animal and history of a wound. It is possible to measure antibody levels against the tetanus toxin but this has not been widely used in the clinical setting. Attempting to culture Clostridium tetani from the wound is generally not successful.

Therapy

The first step in treatment is antibiotics to kill the Clostridia. Happily, unusual antibiotics are not needed: penicillin works quite well for this classical gram positive rod. Clindamycin and metronidazole are also felt to be effective. Improvement is usually obvious in the first week of treatment.

Sedation is necessary to control the spasms and/or seizures. Acepromazine and chlorpromazine have been recommended to control the sensitivity to light and noise. The patient will need a darkened quiet room and may need his eyes covered to reduce stimulation. These medications can promote seizures in other sets of circumstances, but tetanus is the exception. Injectable pentobarbital, phenobarbital, propofol, methocarbamol, diazepam, or midazolam can be used to control the muscles stiffness.

Patients for whom respiratory compromise is a concern (when the respiratory muscles are affected or if there is larynx spasm) may actually need days of general anesthesia, an endotracheal tube (tube in the windpipe to keep an airway open) or even a mechanical ventilator.

The decision on whether or not to include tetanus antitoxin is more controversial. Antitoxin is an antibody solution (a blood product) generated by either a horse or human to bind and destroy the tetanus toxin. It cannot remove toxin already bound to the patient’s nerves but can inactivate new toxin not yet bound. Toxin that is already bound to nerves simply has to unbind in time on its own.

There is a risk in using antitoxin because it is a blood product of another species and highly inflammatory to the immune system. Antitoxin can be given under the skin or in the muscle but can take up to 3 days to reach a therapeutic level this way. Giving it by IV is more rapid but also more dangerous in terms of inducing an anaphylactic reaction. Skin testing is commonly used to see how reactive the patient might be. It is potentially helpful in early stages of disease only.

Tetanus toxoid is the tetanus shot most of us have had at one time or another. It is a vaccine against the tetanus toxin and it is part of a horse’s regular vaccination set, just as it is part of a human’s vaccination set. Because dogs and cats are much more resistant to tetanus than horses and humans, regular vaccination against tetanus is not recommended for them.

Nursing care requires a darkened room with minimal stimulation even if the pet no longer requires hospitalization. Clenched jaws can be problematic for feeding so expect a liquid diet or slurry to be needed. Soft bedding to prevent bedsores is a must.

Improvement is generally noted within the first week of therapy but complete recovery can easily take a month.

Some Tetanus Statistics

Most of the information in this article has been gleaned from a study by Burkitt et al published in the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association in January 2007 where 35 cases of canine tetanus seen at the University of California Veterinary Teaching hospital were reviewed for analysis.

Severity Classes

For the purposes of the study mentioned above, cases were classified by the severity of their signs into four groups. It is important to realize that a dog’s initial classification could easily change (in this study 17 dogs that were normal or in Group I at the beginning of the study ended in Group III or IV).

Group I	The dog was able to walk but also demonstrated constricted pupils, risus sardonicus, erect ears, inability to open its jaws, sunken eyes, and/or sensitivity to light.
Group II	All of the above plus erect tail, sawhorse stance, difficulty swallowing, walking stiffly with difficulty.
Group III	All of the above plus muscle tremors or spasms, inability to walk, and seizures.
Group IV	All of the above plus any of the following: heart rate below 60 beats per minute, heart rate above 140 beats per minute, high blood pressure, low blood pressure, or respiratory arrest.

Study Results

The minimal amount of time it takes for an attached tick to transmit disease is not known. The time it takes to transmit diseases is affected by the type of disease organism, the species of tick, etc. However, in general, if a tick is removed within 16 hours, the risk of disease transmission is considered to be very low. Therefore, owners can usually prevent disease transmission to their pets by following a regular schedule to look for and remove ticks.

The Tick Life Cycle

During the egg-laying stage, ticks lay eggs in secluded areas with dense vegetation. The eggs hatch within two weeks. Some species of ticks lay 100 eggs at a time, while others lay 3,000 to 6,000 per batch. Once the eggs hatch, the ticks are in the larval stage, during which time the larvae move into the grass and search for their first blood meal. At this stage, they will attach themselves for several days to their first host, usually a bird or rodent, and then fall onto the ground. The nymph stage begins after the first blood meal is completed. Nymphs remain inactive during winter and start moving again in spring. Nymphs find a host, usually a rodent, pet, or human.

Nymphs are generally about the size of a freckle. After this blood meal, ticks fall off the host and move into the adult stage. Throughout the autumn, male and female adults find a host, which is again usually a rodent, pet, or human. The adult female feeds for 8 to 12 days. The female mates while still attached to her host. Both ticks fall off, and the males die. The female remains inactive through the winter and in the spring lays her eggs in a secluded place. If adults cannot find a host animal in the fall, they can survive in leaf litter until the spring.

What are the best ways to deal with these blood-sucking parasites?

Outdoor Environmental Control

Treating the yard and outdoor kennel area with acaricides (tick pesticides) is an important tool in the arsenal against ticks. Some products can be used to spray the outdoor area. However, you should not rely on spraying to reduce your risk of infection.

If you have health concerns about applying acaricides, check with local health or agricultural officials about the best time to
apply acaricides in your area, identify rules and regulations related to pesticide application on residential properties, and consider using a professional pesticide company to apply pesticides at your home.

You can also create a tick-safe zone in your yard by using some simple landscaping techniques that can help reduce tick populations:

1. Remove leaf litter.
2. Clear tall grasses and brush around homes and at the edge of lawns.
3. Place a 3-ft wide barrier of wood chips or gravel between lawns and wooded areas to restrict tick migration into recreational areas.
4. Mow the lawn frequently.
5. Stack wood neatly and in a dry area. (This discourages rodents who would be used as tick hosts.)
6. Keep playground equipment, decks, and patios away from yard edges and trees.
7. Discourage unwelcome animals (such as deer, raccoons, and stray dogs) from entering your yard by constructing fences.
8. Remove old furniture, mattresses, or trash from the yard that may give ticks a place to hide.

Indoor Environmental Control

If ticks are indoors, flea and tick foggers, sprays, or powders can be used. Inside, ticks typically crawl (they don’t jump) and may be in cracks around windows and doors. A one-foot barrier of insecticide, where the carpeting and wall meet, can help with tick control.

Any spray insecticide labeled for use on clothing should not be sprayed directly on pets.

Powders are fairly easy to apply, but they can be messy. (Avoid topical powders if your pet has a respiratory condition.) Shampoos are useful only for ticks that are already on your pet. A tick collar might be somewhat more water-resistant than a residual insecticide, so if your dog likes to swim, the collar might be a better choice. Flea combs can be used to help remove ticks and wash your pet’s bedding frequently.

Finding and Removing Ticks

The best way to find ticks on your pet is to run your hands over the whole body. Check for ticks every time your pet comes back from an area you know is inhabited by ticks. Ticks attach most frequently around the pet’s head, ears, neck, and feet, but they are not restricted to those areas.

There are several tick removal devices on the market, but a plain set of fine-tipped tweezers will remove a tick quite effectively.

How To Remove A Tick With Tweezers

1. Use fine-tipped tweezers to grasp the tick as close to the skin’s surface as possible.
2. Pull upward with steady, even pressure. Don’t twist or jerk the tick; this can cause the mouth parts to break off and remain in the skin. If this happens, remove the mouth parts with tweezers. If you can’t remove the mouth easily with clean tweezers, leave it alone and let the skin heal.
3. After removing the tick, thoroughly clean the bite area and your hands with rubbing alcohol, an iodine scrub, or soap and water.
4. Dispose of a live tick by submerging it in alcohol, placing it in a sealed bag/container, wrapping it tightly in tape, or flushing it down the toilet. Never crush a tick with your fingers.

Risk of disease transmission to you, while removing ticks, is low but you should wear gloves if you wish to be perfectly safe. Do not apply hot matches, petroleum jelly, turpentine, nail polish, or just rubbing alcohol alone. These methods do not remove the ticks and they are not safe for your pet. Rubbing alcohol could be used to disinfect the area before or after removing the tick.

Watch for Infection and Diseases

After you pull a tick off, there will be a local area of inflammation that could look red, crusty, or scabby. The tick’s attachment causes irritation. The site can get infected; if the pet is scratching at it, it is more apt to get infected. A mild topical antibiotic, such as over-the-counter triple antibiotic ointment, can help but usually is not necessary. The inflammation should go down within a week. If it stays crusty and inflamed longer than a week, it might have become infected.

Various diseases can be transmitted by ticks including anaplasmosis, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, Lyme disease, tick paralysis (or tick toxicosis), and others. Not all species of animals (pets or not) are affected similarly by every tick-borne illness.

Although ticks can transmit diseases contracted from a previous host to pets and humans, they are usually nothing more than a nuisance. The best approach is to prevent them from embedding and once embedded, to remove them quickly. If you notice your pet experiencing signs of illness or acting differently after a tick bite, it is always best to see your veterinarian. If you stay on top of the situation, your pets should cruise right through the tick season with no problems.

Our article on the common tapeworm (Dipylidium caninum) has generated some confusion regarding tapeworms that are not contracted from fleas. There actually is another tapeworm besides Dipylidium whose segments might be seen on a pet’s anal area or on their feces. These other worms are members of the Taenia genus.

There are several members of the Taenia genus with which one may come to be acquainted:

1. Taenia solium, which infects humans when they consume undercooked pork
2. Taenia saginata, which infects humans when they consume undercooked beef
3. Taenia hydatigena, which infects dogs when they consume undercooked livestock or venison or feed from dead livestock or deer they find out in the world
4. Taenia taeniaeformis, which infects cats when they consume rats and mice 
5. Taenia ovis, which infects dogs after they consume dead sheep or undercooked lamb
6. Taenia multiceps, which infects dogs that eat the brains of infected sheep
7. Taenia crassiceps, which infects dogs when they consume rats and mice 
8. Taenia serialis and Taenia pisiformis, which infect dogs when they consume dead rabbits.

To keep things simple, we will stick to the term Taenia to refer to all of them. There are, as you might guess, other Taenia species that infect animals other than dogs and cats but we will leave them out of this discussion for simplicity. In short, pets at risk for a Taenia infection are those that eat raw meat, either through predation or raw feeding.

The Taenia Life Cycle

The young tapeworm hatches in the new host’s intestine and escapes into the blood supply, with the next stop being the liver. (Remember, this new host is a prey animal such as a mouse, rabbit, deer, etc. We have not gotten to the dog or cat predator yet). The larval tapeworm wanders through the liver, leaving bloody tracks behind. It ultimately falls into the abdominal cavity, where it forms a sac and waits. After about two months of development in this location, the larval tapeworm is ready to continue its development, but it will need a new host to do so. When the host (prey species) dies or is killed by a predator, the sac and its young tapeworm inside may be consumed incidentally when the body of the host is eaten.

About two months later, inside the predator (dog, cat, or even human, depending on what kind of animal the prey was), the young tapeworm is now mature and is beginning to shed its first segments, and the cycle begins again.

How Do you Know What Kind of Tapeworm the Segments Are from?

In most cases, tapeworm segments seen are from Dipylidium caninum, which is not called the common tapeworm for no reason (i.e., it is very common). The segments of Dipylidium are longer than they are wide and are said to look like grains of rice. The segments of a Taenia tapeworm are wider than they are long.

As with most tapeworms, it is hard to find tapeworm eggs using the normal fecal testing we use to screen animals for worm infection. This is because tapeworms shed their eggs in discreet packets (the proglottids) rather than releasing them freely. Unless a proglottid breaks open and releases its eggs, it is likely that eggs will not be found. Diagnosis is usually based on seeing the proglottids with the naked eye.

Is it Important to Recognize Which Type of Tapeworm the Pet Has?

The good news here is that the same medication, praziquantel, kills both types of tapeworms efficiently. Where it becomes useful to know one type of worm from another is prevention. Dipylidium comes from swallowing a flea; Taenia comes from swallowing carrion, hunting prey, or feeding raw food. Knowing where the tapeworm came from tells you what to do to prevent the next infection: stop feeding raw, restrict access to prey, or beef up flea control.

Tapeworms do not cause significant symptoms and are largely of cosmetic concern.

If you see tapeworm segments on your pet’s fur or feces, see your veterinarian for a tapeworm treatment.

A note on the Echinococcus tapeworm:

There is a much more dangerous (to humans) genus of tapeworms called Echinococcus. Humans can be infected via contact with canine feces. We bring this up because under the microscope, Taenia eggs and Echinococcus eggs when they are found, appear identical. They can be distinguished with more advanced testing should this event occur.

The usual life cycle involves a rodent consuming the egg, developing destructive tapeworm cysts in its liver, and ending up as lunch (cysts and all) to a dog, cat, or fox. The dog, cat, or fox then becomes the new source of tapeworm eggs. Should the contaminated soil end up on human hands instead of in a rodent’s mouth, the potential for human transmission exists, and the tapeworm cysts in the lungs and liver can be lethal. To prevent your roaming dog or cat from becoming a source of these dangerous eggs, regular praziquantel dosing should be included in the monthly parasite protection program for the pet. Check with your veterinarian to see if you live in an area where Echinococcus multilocularis is native.

Why Should I Brush My Dog’s Or Cat’s Teeth?

How Can I Brush My Animal’s Teeth?

It is usually an easy and fun procedure. First pick a soft-bristled or finger toothbrush. Next, get toothpaste from your veterinarian. Do not use human toothpaste because it has detergents that should not be swallowed.

How About Wipes?

Dental wipes can be effective in removing plaque. Be sure to wipe the area where the tooth meets the gum line.

How Often Does My Pet Need To Have Teeth Cleaned By The Veterinarian?

It depends on the degree of plaque and tartar accumulation. You need to examine your pet’s teeth monthly. Look for an accumulation of yellow or brown material at the area where the tooth meets the gumline especially over the cheek teeth and canines.

Once you notice plaque or tartar accumulation, it is time for a professional cleaning. Do not wait.

Attached to the tartar are bacteria, which irritate gum tissues. When treated, the inflammation will resolve. When gingivitis is left untreated, it will progress to periodontitis, which is non-curable.

The intervals between teeth cleaning procedures will depend on how often you can brush your pet’s teeth. Once or twice daily cleaning is optimum. If you cannot brush the teeth, then your pet will probably need two or three teeth cleaning visits yearly.

Can I Just Take My Fingernail Or A Dental Scaler To Remove The Calculus?

Dental disease occurs below the gum line. By removing calculus from the tooth, you are not removing disease below the gum line. In order to thoroughly help your pet, plaque and calculus must be removed from below the gum line.

Do You Have To Use Anesthesia To Clean My Pet’s Teeth?

Anesthesia is necessary when performing teeth cleaning. Anesthesia provides three important functions: immobilization in order to clean below the gum line, pain control, and the ability to place a tube into the windpipe, so bacterial products do not enter the respiratory system.

I Am Concerned About The Anesthesia. Is It Safe?

We take every effort to provide safe anesthesia. We use gas anesthetic agents; dogs and cats are given pre-operative tests depending on their age and condition to qualify them for anesthesia; and patients are monitored while anesthetized both visibly and with similar monitoring devices as used in human hospitals.

What Is Involved In The Teeth Cleaning At Your Hospital?

Each Oral Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention (Oral ATP) visit has twelve separate steps:

1. general exam before anesthesia, pre-operative organ testing
2. oral exam under anesthesia
3. gross calculus removal
4. subgingival (below the gumline) scaling, root planing, curettage where indicated
5. tooth polishing
6. irrigation
7. fluoride / OraVet application
8. post cleaning exam and dental x-rays to evaluate the areas below the gum line
9. dental charting to create a treatment plan
10. therapy if necessary
11. home care instructions
12. no-fee follow up appointment to see how well you are performing home care.

How Much Does A Tooth Cleaning Procedure Cost?

It is impossible to determine what the procedure will cost because we do not know the status of your pet’s teeth and gums. There are four levels of teeth cleanings at our hospital. Fees are based on severity plus costs for preoperative testing, anesthesia, necessary therapy, and medication. Fees for all dental services are available by e-mail or fax. The doctor or staff will provide an initial treatment plan based on exam room findings and a follow up treatment plan with fees after a tooth-by-tooth exam is conducted under anesthesia.

What Is The Best Food For My Pet?

Hard food will help remove plaque from teeth. There are special diets specifically manufactured to help control plaque. Feeding the special diets in conjunction with daily brushing is the best to keep the teeth clean. Diet alone will not control plaque, but it will help.

What Toys Should I Avoid To Protect My Pet’s Teeth?

Chewing on objects harder than teeth may lead to dental fractures. Be especially careful with cow and horse hoofs. They commonly cause fractures of the upper fourth premolars. Tug-of-war games must not be practiced, especially in young dogs and cats in order to avoid moving growing teeth to abnormal locations. Throwing dogs discs can also cause trauma to the teeth, resulting in pulpitis (an inflammation of the pulp).

What Are Cat Cavities?

Many cats get painful lesions at the gum line that invade teeth. They are properly referred to as tooth resorptions. Unfortunately we do not know what causes tooth resorption, and the most effective treatment involves extraction of the affected tooth. Check to see if your cat has an advanced resorption by pressing a cotton-tipped applicator to the gum line. If a painful lesion is noted, your cat will chatter its jaw.

How Can I Tell If My Pet Is Suffering From Periodontal Disease?

The leading sign is bad breath. Dogs and cats should not have disagreeable mouth odor. Bad breath comes from infection. If your pet’s breath does not smell like roses, let us examine its mouth and advise care.

What Type Of Tests Are Done To Diagnose Dental Disease?

If your pet has periodontal disease or a fractured tooth, an oral exam is performed while under anesthesia. A periodontal probe is used to evaluate bone loss around each tooth. X-rays are taken to evaluate if the teeth can be saved or need to be extracted.

When Do I Have To Start Worrying About Dental Problems With My Pet?

As soon as puppy or kitten teeth emerge, it’s time to start brushing. Although baby teeth are replaced with adult teeth, the puppy or kitten gets used to the brushing procedure, which continues for life.

What Can Be Done If My Pet Has Periodontal Disease?

Periodontal disease occurs when tooth support structures are affected by infection. In the beginning stages, cleaning above and below the gum line as well as removal of calculus attached to the tooth will help restore periodontal health. In advanced cases, either periodontal surgery or extractions are performed. Antibiotics given monthly also help to control the progression of periodontal disease.

Which Animals Are At Most Risk For Periodontal Disease?

Smaller breeds are more prone than larger because the teeth are closer together in small dogs, and they usually live longer. Terriers, Maltese, and Shih Tzus are especially prone to periodontal disease.

What Can You Do To Fix A Broken Tooth?

If your dog or cat breaks a tooth, there are two treatments: root canal therapy or extraction. You cannot leave the tooth alone with an exposed nerve. In addition to pain, infection will soon develop that can spread to the rest of your pet’s body.

Platelets (thrombocytes) are produced in the bone marrow. Platelets circulate in the blood. When your pet gets cut, platelets stick to the edges of the cut and to one another, forming a plug. They then release chemicals that react with fibrinogen and other plasma proteins, leading to the formation of a blood clot.

If your pet has a condition called thrombocytopenia, his platelet count is low. When the platelet count is low, it is harder for clotting to occur.

Signs of thrombocytopenia vary, but can include petechial (small, pinpoint) hemorrhages in the skin or mucous membranes (lining of the mouth, for example), nosebleeds, hematuria (blood in the urine), melena (blood in the feces), and bleeding into the joints or body cavities. The lower the platelet count is, the more likely it is that your pet will show signs. (Some animals may show no warning signs at all, and the thrombocytopenia may be discovered only during routine health exams.)

Major causes of thrombocytopenia are immune-mediated thrombocytopenia (an autoimmune disease), bone marrow cancers, infectious diseases, hereditary diseases, drug/vaccination reactions, vasculitis (leading to deep vein thrombosis), and disseminated intravascular coagulation.

Thrombocytopenia is not common in dogs and cats, although there are several breeds of dogs that are predisposed to it. Animals with cancer are at higher risk than those without cancer, but it can occur in a dog/cat of any age, breed, or sex.

Diagnostic tests include: blood tests (platelet count, complete blood count, serum biochemistry), urinalysis, chest or abdominal radiographs (to look for diseases that could be causing the thrombocytopenia), tests for specific infectious diseases (Rocky Mountain spotted fever, ehrlichiosis, etc.), bone marrow aspiration, and tests for immune system function.

Treatment is based on the cause of the thrombocytopenia, and may include antibiotics, corticosteroids, blood transfusions, etc.

Prognosis depends on the cause of the thrombocytopenia. A mild, self-limiting vaccine-induced thrombocytopenia has an excellent prognosis, while a thrombocytopenia due to cancer might have a much worse prognosis.

Dogs are often brought in for tremoring or shivering episodes. The patient can be any age or any size. Tremors can involve only certain muscles or body areas or the entire dog. Finding the reason behind tremors is tricky as tremoring occurs for many reasons.

The first step is to consider normal reasons for shivering. The patient is:

1. cold
2. frightened
3. asleep and dreaming.

Usually, these can be excluded from being a disease by providing a blanket or sweater, comforting the anxious patient, or rousing the sleeping patient.

Elderly dogs with muscle atrophy tend to suffer muscle fatigue and muscles will shake when over-worked. This type of tremoring is often pretty easy to distinguish as the patient is elderly and the tremors begin when the patient has been standing longer than they would prefer. When a muscle becomes fatigued, tremoring helps release stored glycogen/glucose to permit continued muscle contraction. Tremoring generally stops when the muscle is allowed to relax and the patient rests.

Mild shivers are rarely a significant symptom; it is the more violent involuntary tremors and twitches that indicate neuromuscular disease.

Conditions When Only Certain Body Parts Tremor

If only certain body parts tremor, there are some neuromuscular diseases to consider.

Intention Tremors

Diseases involving the cerebellum of the brain will lead to tremors when the patient directs his attention to a task. The patient may sit quietly without tremors, but if a bowl of food is put out, tremors of the neck and head erupt when the patient reaches for the food.

This sort of tremoring generally goes way beyond what might be described as shivering or even twitching. A classic example of cerebellar intention tremors is seen in kittens born with cerebellar hypoplasia, a neurologic condition stemming from the mother becoming infected with or vaccinated for feline distemper during pregnancy.

Cerebellar disease certainly does not have to be congenital. Any damage to the cerebellum (trauma, tumor, infection, etc.) can produce an intention tremor. An intention tremor is highly suggestive of disease in the cerebellum, though, and diagnostics should be pursued to uncover the nature of that disease. See a video of these wobbly kittens.

Idiopathic Head Tremors

No one really knows why this occurs but some dogs have episodes of head bobbing (usually up and down but can be side to side). Breeds that seem over-represented are Boxers, English bulldogs, beagles, and Doberman pinschers. This condition is totally unresponsive to seizure medications and the best way to curtail an episode seems to be to focus the dog’s attention on a toy or treat. Episodes tend to get milder with age. See this boxer’s head tremors.

Distemper Myoclonus

Dogs that survive a canine distemper infection may suffer from seizures, paralysis, or muscle twitching long term. Often a young dog is adopted from the shelter or rescue, and her history is unknown. Distemper myoclonus appears as involuntary twitches of muscle groups anywhere on the body. Multiple areas can be involved. These twitches are not seizures and do not respond to seizure medications. Numerous medications have been used with inconsistent results. The most successful treatment has involved injections of cosmetic Botox® into the muscle group involved, but this therapy is expensive and many dogs do not seem particularly inconvenienced by their myoclonus. The black dog is showing myoclonus of his jaw and neck muscles.

Orthostatic Tremors

This condition is observed only when the dog is standing and involves tremors of the leg muscles. The patient is typically a young, very large-breed dog (Great Dane, mastiff, Weimaraner). The condition tends to progress in severity over time and may come to require treatment. It is generally responsive to phenobarbital and/or to gabapentin.

Conditions When the Whole Body Tremors

If the entire dog is shivering and shaking, then we must consider diseases that involve the entire dog. Normal muscles rely on oxygen, nutrients, and electrolytes from the bloodstream as well as normal electrical stimulation from the nervous system.

We need to look at problems with these systems:

1. Hypocalcemia (low blood calcium, especially if nursing puppies)
2. Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)
3. Toxins (especially snail bait and insecticides)
4. Little White Shaker Dog syndrome (which does not actually require that the patient be a white dog), is also called non-suppurative meningoencephalomyelitis or steroid-responsive tremors.
5. Seizures/epilepsy.

Severe tremors can elevate the body temperature dangerously and cause brain damage. Patients for which tremoring is an emergency are generally clearly mentally distressed by the involuntary motions or disoriented from the underlying neurologic disease.

Many toxins can cause twitches and involuntary muscle tremors, so it is important to let your veterinarian know what products are in your home. What flea products do you use? Do you have pesticides in the garden? These products are frequently neurotoxins that produce seizures and twitching. Snail baits containing metaldehyde are particularly common, as are permethrin-based flea products (generally safe for dogs but cats are uniquely sensitive). Tremors are a notable feature of chocolate toxicity. Obviously, poisoning is an emergency so you will need to see your veterinarian or local emergency service right away.

Brain diseases can produce seizures that can manifest as persistent but fine tremoring or more violent convulsions. Metabolic diseases, such as low blood sugar or low blood calcium, can lead to tremors and even seizures. Muscle diseases such as tetanus can lead to involuntary muscle contraction. Twitches and tremors may be intermittent and are certainly not always emergencies; however, blood testing and possibly advanced neurological testing may be needed.

Your first step is going to be an evaluation with your veterinarian to narrow down the search and complete the necessary basic tests. Not all veterinarians are comfortable diagnosing neurologic disease, so discuss with your veterinarian whether referral to a specialist would be best for you and your pet. The best treatment plan can be made from there.

The small white dog in this video has White Shaker syndrome. It is generally controlled with immune-suppressive doses of corticosteroids. The prognosis (outlook) is generally good.

If your pet has been involved in any event that may have caused head trauma, always see your veterinarian or an emergency practice for immediate attention.

What Is a Traumatic Brain Injury?

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) occurs when a sudden event, such as a blow or fall, happens to the head. In both humans and animals, a head injury severe enough to damage the brain is referred to as traumatic brain injury or TBI.

Humans are diagnosed with concussions (a mild form of TBI), and veterinarians may use that terminology to describe a dog or cat with an externally caused brain injury. A concussion is a mild form of TBI that occurs when there has been a rapid back-and-forth movement of the head, essentially causing the brain to come in contact with the skull.

There has been increased attention on TBI in humans as sports injuries have become more recognized and acknowledged, and you may hear the term TBI more often now than in the past.

How Does it Happen?

TBI can occur in any age group or breed of dog or cat. Pets spending time outdoors may be more vulnerable to traumatic brain injury as they are likely exposed to more injury-causing risks. One fortunate advantage that dogs and cats have over humans is that their skulls are relatively thicker and, thus, a bit more protective of the brain. However, violent trauma can easily overcome the protective effect of a thicker skull.

An auto accident, fall, blunt trauma, a bite, kick or violent shaking, or any other sudden injury to the head can result in TBI.

How is TBI Diagnosed?

If your pet is not stable upon arriving at the veterinary hospital, it will be stabilized. A clinical examination will be completed, and your veterinarian may recommend various tests depending on your pet’s status. Your pet may have also been injured in other parts of the body, and your veterinarian will check for those. Blood and urine testing can help determine the extent of the injuries and establish a baseline for further evaluation. Neurological examinations and images of the head and brain using X-rays, MRI, or Computed Tomography (CT) may be needed when there is a suspected history of head trauma. Blood pressure may be monitored.

Evidence of an injury may be apparent. Cuts, scrapes, or broken bones may help tell the story if you were not present when the trauma happened.

If your pet is showing signs consistent with TBI, seeing these signs exhibited can be frightening. More so if you have no idea what is causing them.

Suppose the potential TBI happened in the past, and the history of the trauma that caused the head injury is available. In that case, your veterinarian will use this information to help evaluate the effects of the original injury.

There can be a variety of neurological symptoms from brain trauma that your pet may experience. Motor control issues such as circling in one direction, head tilting or displaying rapid or abnormal eye movement, or a difference in the size of the pupils may be present. Your pet may experience seizures.

Another severe and recognizable symptom of TBI is known as decerebrate posture. The limbs are held unnaturally, straight out, and ridged, with the head back and neck arched. This behavior generally suggests a more serious brain injury.

X-rays will usually be recommended as your pet may have a skull fracture or other broken bones (in other areas). Continuous electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring may be needed to check your pet’s heartbeat. Additional imaging such as ultrasound, MRI, or CT scanning may be indicated so that your veterinarian can see your pet’s brain and other areas, if needed, in better detail.

Generally, TBI is divided into two categories: primary, which refers to results from the initial injury, and secondary, referring to damage caused by the primary injury.

Primary Injury

There is swelling where there is an injury to any of the body’s tissues. Swelling reduces blood flow, and compressed blood vessels cause pressure to build up in and around the brain. Broken blood vessels cause blood to pool, forming clots (hematomas).

If there is a skull fracture, brain damage can be worse. Surgery may be considered in this case. The severity of the condition is determined by how bad the initial injury and trauma were.

Depending on the overall injury causing a TBI, your pet may also experience difficulties with physical movement or injuries to other parts of the body.

Secondary Injury

Changes within the brain occur immediately after the primary injury, affecting the processes, or metabolism, at work in the entire body.

Because metabolism uses energy to drive many functions of the body, the changes are linked and result in numerous systems reacting, furthering the damage to the brain. Poor blood flow and bleeding in the brain add to these issues.

After the initial injury, a cascade of issues may develop over time. Brain swelling and inadequate blood and oxygen flow occur not only in the brain but also in other organs, such as the heart. Increased pressure within the cranium and brain swelling are major causes of death from TBI in dogs and cats.

Further laboratory testing and follow-up exams help your veterinarian evaluate additional damage to the whole body in addition to the brain that may be present.

Treatment

Treatment for TBI involves mainly supportive care, which may include hospitalization with continuous monitoring, medications, appropriate wound care, blood work, and follow-up X-rays.

Prognosis

Recovery for your pet depends on how severe the primary injury was. Patients who survive the first 24 hours following injury will most likely recover but may need treatment and monitoring depending on the injuries. If referred to a neurologist, you may need to take your pet for checkups or additional therapy, depending on the situation. Brains, both human and animal, have amazing powers of recovery, and positive outcomes happen all the time. Working closely with your veterinarian and/or veterinary neurologist and knowing what signs to look for (both good and bad) can help your pet have the best chance at recovery and, if possible, get back to their normal activities.

Depending on the location and extent of brain injury, the animal may recover fully or be left with varying degrees of altered mental or motor functions. One possible long-term result of TBI is epilepsy, which is recurring seizures. These can usually be managed with medications so that the animal’s quality of life remains good.