This was not always the case. In the 40s, 50s and 60s — well over half a century ago — death from anesthesia was about 1 in 400 for dogs and 1 in 260 for cats. These numbers are from referral hospitals, which are generally anesthetizing sicker patients, and that could increase the numbers over what you would expect to see in healthier pets in a general practice. There is a study from the early 2000s in the U.K. that followed mortality in a variety of practices (from general practices all the way to referral hospitals) and included dogs, cats, birds and pocket pets; in it, they found a death rate from 1 in 588 for dogs and 1 in 416 for cats. The risk has continued to drop, so that today those fatality numbers are around 1.7 in 1,000 dogs and 2.4 in 1,000 cats.

Although only statistics for dogs and cats have been created, the same improvement in risk applies to other pets such as rabbits, rats, hedgehogs, bearded dragons, and even goldfish as equipment and teaching new methods of anesthesia have improved over the years.

How does it work?

General anesthesia is given through an IV or an inhaled gas, or sometimes a combination of the two. It is similar, on a smaller scale, to a medically-induced coma. Oftentimes a sedative is given first.

It works by interrupting nerve signals in your pet’s brain and body. It keeps them temporarily unconscious: asleep, relaxed, and pain free during a procedure or surgery. It slows down automatic functions like breathing, heart rate, and circulation. During that coma-like period, brains cannot process pain, nor will the pet remember what happened during surgery.

During the procedure, the veterinarian or veterinary anesthesiologist will check some basic functions while your pet is under, such as breathing, temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, blood oxygen level, and fluid levels (as would happen in a human surgery). Monitoring doesn’t have to be done with expensive equipment, as having a trained person monitoring the depth of anesthesia as well as certain physical parameters can be just as valuable. Computerized anesthesia monitors can be used to enhance, but not replace, that person’s ability.

If those functions aren’t where the veterinarian wants them to be, adjustments in the level of anesthesia can correct them.

Monitoring doesn’t stop when surgery is over, or even when the equipment is removed. About half of the anesthesia deaths in small animals happen during the first 3 hours after surgery. The causes are usually breathing or heart problems. That makes this time critical for patient safety. Careful monitoring by a trained observer of physical variables, especially oxygenation and temperature, can help make this time period safer.

What main factors influence anesthetic risk?

Not unsurprisingly, the first is the health of the animal. Healthy patients, or patients with mild, controlled disease, are at less risk than patients who are sick. For healthy dogs, about 1 in 2,000 are expected to have a fatality and about 1 in 1000 cats would have one. In sicker patients, it would be closer to 13 dogs and 14 cats out of 1,000.

Having anesthesia in an emergency can also increase risk. That makes sense if you think about it. When you have time to plan a procedure, stabilize your patient and can schedule surgery at a time that is optimal for everyone, things go better. Having said that, the risk of anesthetic death with an emergency procedure, while higher than regular procedures, is still low.  Emergencies are emergencies because they can’t wait, and there are times that the pet will die if surgery is not done as soon as possible, such as with bloat.  

Veterinarians can decrease risk by focusing on monitoring and supportive care before, during, and after anesthesia. Preoperative planning is done with a good history, physical examination, and often baseline lab work to check liver and kidney function, among other things. Any abnormalities identified before surgery can be corrected if needed.

Follow all of your veterinarian’s pre-operative instructions exactly, including when to stop giving food the night before. Anesthetized patients lose their ability to swallow. If there is food in the stomach, the pet could vomit while under anesthesia or soon afterwards. If vomiting occurs before the swallowing reflex comes back, the vomited material can enter into the lungs, causing aspiration pneumonia. For emergency surgery, this factor is overlooked, but not for elective surgery.

While anesthetic risk is not zero and never will be, the risks are low and shouldn’t prevent any pet owner from providing health care for their pet whether it’s a dental cleaning or major surgery.

Chinchillas are playful and intelligent pets, but they are not suited for all households. Although they are social and interactive, they are also messy and destructive. They make a significant mess when allowed out of the cage. Chinchillas are extremely active and need a significant amount of out of cage time and exercise. In an ideal world, they would be kept uncaged, but their penchant for chewing everything within reach and defecating anywhere they wish prevents that in most households. Unfortunately, they are intelligent, social, and active, and therefore not well suited for cage life. Fortunately, they are reasonably hardy animals and if properly fed and cared for, do not develop a large array of serious medical concerns.

Proper husbandry prevents many of the common medical issues. The vast majority of diseases seen by veterinarians in these friendly, appealing pets relate directly to poor husbandry. Although somewhat expensive, the adorable face and soft fur can often lead to impulse purchases, without an owner realizing the extent of the care required to keep them healthy. This, combined with the over-marketing of foods not designed for their intestinal tract can lead to significant health problems over their long life span. Being educated about what these pets need can go a long way towards improving their overall wellbeing.

Chinchillas are native to the Andes Mountains of South America. They dwell primarily at high altitudes, and are currently only found to exist in the wild in Chile. They are named after the Chincha people of the Andes, who once wore their thick fur, but unfortunately, overhunting has driven the wild chinchilla to near extinction. Most chinchillas used today in the fur industry are farm-raised.

In their natural environment, chinchillas live in large groups hidden in burrows and crevices. They are prey for a variety of animals (birds, snakes, and wild omnivores such as canines and skunks) and therefore have retained the skittish nature of prey species. They are able to jump as high as 6 feet, and will defend themselves by spraying urine or allowing large patches of fur to fall out if bitten (“fur slip”). This can be important when you take your chin to the veterinarian, where chinchillas may feel threatened and release fur; sometimes that is a surprise to a new owner. Their fine bones are also delicate, and fractures may inadvertently occur during restraint. Many veterinarians prefer to examine chinchillas from within the confines of a small hand towel wrapped around the it to keep the delicate animal accessible but free from injury.

Diet

The primary diet in the wild is high in fiber, and includes plant leaves, stems, bark, wild fruits, and small insects. This is a far cry from the most common, yet unbalanced, modern diet of pellets for the pet chinchilla. This natural high-fiber fare promotes health throughout the digestive tract, starting with the continuously growing teeth and ending with the stool, which is commonly eaten and re-processed. Calling a chinchilla “a digestive tract covered in fur” would be a reasonable description, and it is imperative to feed them adequately to maintain health.

Lively and entertaining, these delightful little creatures do make wonderful pets in households with a high tolerance for messes and destruction. They are likely not appropriate for houses with small children or predator-type animals, unless the interactions are closely monitored to prevent injury to the chinchilla.

They are one of the longest-lived domestic rodents, with life expectancies topping 12 years when properly housed.

Husbandry

Caging

Chinchillas are inquisitive, active, and intelligent. They require a startlingly large amount of space, particularly if they are caged for long periods of time. A large 2-story ferret cage (6 ft X 6 ft X 4 ft) would appropriately house one to two chinchillas. The larger the number of pets, the more space they will require.

Although many owners prefer a wire mesh cage to allow droppings to pass through, this can lead to injury should a foot or leg become entrapped in the wire. Plastic bottom cages can also be problematic because chinchillas will commonly chew through them. Additionally, the urine tends to stain plastic, and is difficult to clean. Most chinchillas are not readily trained to a litter box and tend to urinate and defecate where they wish. For many animals, the best solution is a wire cage with the bottom covered with a thick layer of hay. In this manner, it serves a dual purpose of a snack and soft bedding to protect the feet of the animals. The bedding will need to be thick and protective, absorbent as possible, and digestible if eaten. Regardless of bedding chosen, the cage will need regular cleaning either daily or at least every other day.

Enrichment

The cage should be outfitted with plenty of things to keep the intelligent chinchilla mind and large teeth busy. Ledge shelves to perch on, cardboard boxes to hide in and eat, and chewing toys are all important. Since chinchillas are so quick to destroy their chew toys, it is hard financially to keep them supplied from the local pet store. A good choice is safe wood trees that have not been sprayed with pesticides, and branches from apple and other fruit trees, non-resinous pine, and beech. Although maple is sometimes recommended for chewing, it’s not a good idea as chinchillas can develop a severe case of blood in their urine after eating dried maple leaves. 

Oxbow makes a series of edible, safe, nutritious toys, including hay mats, tubes, and houses. These tend to be popular and safe, although over time, can prove expensive. Chinchillas do not need salt or mineral blocks if they are being fed a proper balanced diet.

Other inexpensive chew toys include deer antler and bones, which can be purchased inexpensively in bulk from wildlife rehabilitation facilities. 

Many of the chew toys in pet stores are treated wood, expensive, and may only have a life expectancy of hours once they enter the chinchilla’s cage.

Chinchillas have a high energy level, and equipping the cage with an oversized wheel designed specifically for chinchilla use will provide endless hours of entertainment, exercise, and all-out fun. There are several different varieties available, and some chins do not take to them instinctively but have to be taught how to use them, but once they have caught on, it can be difficult to pry them out of their wheels. Chinchillas are primarily nocturnal, so it is particularly helpful to purchase a quiet wheel in order to maintain the sanity of the people in the house. Although more expensive, it certainly is worth a few extra dollars to prevent a wheel from squeaking at 2 a.m.

Chinchillas are somewhat high strung, and do not do well in congested and busy areas of the house. Additionally, they are largely nocturnal, and their noisy night time play will likely disrupt their sleeping humans. 

They are extremely heat sensitive. They should not be housed near a heat source or window. In fact, a chinchilla exposed to over 75°F or in a high humidity environment can experience heat stroke. An underground basement where it stays cool year round is good, and it’s is out of way of day to day household operations but has easy access for playtime. Many people add strips of slate or quartz into the cages for chinchillas to sit on as a “cool spot” during the warmest part of the year. 

Adding warmth, humidity, and stress is a recipe for a chinchilla disaster, and owners should carefully choose their cage settings with this in mind. 

Dust Bath

Because of the extremely dense hair coat, chinchillas should not be bathed with water. Dampness can predispose them to fungal infections since they take a long time to dry. They enjoy dust bathing on a regular basis. Commercial bath formulas made of volcanic ash are available, as are “bath houses” that help to contain some of the dusty mess. Other people like to use cornstarch in a shallow dish or crock. Most chins really love to bathe, and it is entertaining to set out the bath and step back and watch the spin cycle! Some reports recommend limiting bathing to a few days a week to prevent eye and respiratory irritations; however, many chinchillas are allowed to bathe whenever they wish and have no problems. 

Several dust formulations are available on the market. Choose one that is reasonably scent free with fine particles that will easily penetrate the thick coat. Use products that only contain volcanic ash or pumice dust and avoid unnecessary additives. The bathing area will also need to have regular cleaning since many chinchillas will urinate and defecate in their bathtub. (Remember, they are not exactly the cleanest of creatures to have in the house.)

If males and females are to be housed together, precautions are indicated, which will be discussed below.

Social Structure

Chinchillas are naturally a herd animal, and do much better in small groups than in solo housing. Unfortunately, however, female chinchillas do tend to be aggressive towards male chinchillas and can cause significant injury and even death. For this reason, many people prefer to have “single sex” groupings of chinchillas. One way around the issue is to divide the living quarters with a barrier and a small hole in the barrier. The male, being much smaller than the female, can cross the barrier to spend time with the female but also has the option to retreat to an area that the significantly larger female cannot access. Chinchillas are reasonably prolific, however, and if this option is chosen, surgical sterilization should certainly be considered. Small groupings of single sex animals are often also quite compatible and may be easier for owners to maintain.

Nutritional Requirements

Proper husbandry goes a long way to extending their life expectancy. Chinchillas are the Labrador retrievers of the rodent world. They will beg and plead themselves into all kinds of snacks that are not necessarily in their best interest. Similarly, they will eat vast quantities of food and overwhelm their intestinal tract. The average chinchilla, left to its own devices, would consume massive amounts of fruits, sweetened yogurt droplets, seeded/nut treats, and pellets, none of which relate back to the natural diet of a high fiber, low sugar, low protein combination.

Similar to rabbits and other herbivores, chinchillas are basically one giant intestinal tract with ears. From nose to tail, all of the internal organs are squeezed into corners of the body by the GI tract. They are designed to eat high fiber materials with a low nutritional content, and are programmed to spend a tremendous part of the day foraging for food. This combines with the anatomic reality of teeth that continue to grow throughout life, and the animal needs to eat a high fiber, low digestibility food. This is at complete opposite extremes with what is currently marketed in our pet stores of “chinchilla pellets” and “chinchilla treats” that are made up primarily of sugars.

A well-balanced diet is composed of a small amount (approximately 1 tablespoon per animal) of high-quality chinchilla pellets (such as Oxbow or Zupreem). These pellets should contain no dried fruits, vegetables, seeds or nuts.

The bulk of the diet should be made up of free-choice, high-quality sun-dried hay. Companies such as Oxbow produce a variety of different flavors, which can be rotated to provide variety and environmental enrichment. In general, any flavor of high-quality hay is appropriate, but alfalfa hay should be fed in small quantities, if at all. It is high in calcium and may be too rich for the chin’s intestinal tract. Some green leafy vegetables such as romaine, kale, endive, escarole, and spinach can also be offered.

Chinchillas will beg for, and eat, almost anything that is sweet, loaded with carbohydrates, and is bad for them. Unfortunately, these foods can upset the bacterial flora of the intestinal tract and can result in digestive upsets, bloat, diarrhea, and death. Diabetes is being diagnosed with increasing frequency in chinchillas, and many clinicians feel that improper diet may be the root cause of this, as well. Treats should be limited to two raisin-sized treats per animal per 24 hours. Safe snacks include raisins, rose hips, apple, Cheerios, dates, and limited amounts of other fruits.

Water is an essential nutrient for chinchillas, just like all species. However, once again, the sharp teeth of the chinchilla can cause problems with their water supply. Although most learn quickly to use a water sipper-style bottle, they will commonly chew the plastic variety and “pop” them. Glass bottles are generally better for chinchillas. Many do like to drink out of crocks as well. If using a crock, owners should monitor the chinchilla’s belly. If it is becoming moist, fungal infections may set in; and a change to a water bottle may be indicated.

Appropriateness as Pets

Although chinchillas are lovely animals, they are not necessarily appropriate for all households.

Good chinchilla owners must be able to provide them a significant amount of quiet, chew-safe space, out of cage exercise time, and a carefully balanced diet to ensure dental as well as gastrointestinal health. While chinchillas are reasonably hardy creatures, their health presuppose good husbandry and nutrition. Pet stores generally do a poor job of educating owners, leaving the responsibility to veterinarians. Sadly, veterinarians are often not consulted until the animal falls ill from a preventable disease.

They are highly active nocturnal animals that spend their days resting and come alive at night to collect (and chase) their meals, which usually consist of fruits, vegetables, and insects in the wild. Hedgehogs enjoy a simple life of solitude, and they rely on their spikes and ability to curl up into a ball to protect them from the terrors of the outside world, which can include anything from owls and wolves in the wild to loud noises or new people in our homes.

Hedgehogs usually live for anywhere from 4-6 years, and males should weigh between 500-700g (17.6-24.7 oz) whereas females should weigh around 250-400g (8.8-14.1 oz). As with any other species, there are certain diseases that we commonly see in hedgehogs ranging from obesity to neurological problems, and veterinarians can use the specific signs associated with each disease to determine which part of the body is being affected and what the best treatment will be.

Skin Disease

Skin diseases are fairly common in hedgehogs, and they typically lead to dry, scaly skin. Diagnosing these conditions can be done by taking skin scrapes and looking at them under a microscope or culturing them to see what irritants are causing the problem. Dermatophytosis is a skin disease common to hedgehogs that involves scaly areas around the base of the spines, which can be treated with topical antifungals. Mite infestations also include crusting and flaking of the skin and anti-parasitic drugs are used to eliminate the infestation; however, it is also important to keep your hedgehog’s environment clean and treat any other hedgehogs living in the home, as mites are very good at spreading through the environment- don’t worry, these mites are specific to hedgehogs.

Obesity

Obesity is a common issue seen in hedgehogs because most pet hedgehogs have unlimited access to food, likely in addition to not being active enough throughout the day. This combination can lead to a variety of problems from not being able to roll into a ball for protection to other more serious diseases like hepatic lipidosis (fatty liver disease). Prevention is the best way to approach obesity, which is why it is important that you feed appropriate amounts of high quality food to your hedgehog, provide enrichment opportunities that promote activity, and monitor their weight so that you can catch any weight gain early and adjust their diet accordingly. Getting a food scale to weigh your hedgehog on weekly is a great way to stay on top of their weight. Once an animal has become obese, treatment involves a weight loss program, which means fewer calories a day and more enrichment to promote activity. Offering insects to eat is a great way to increase a hedgehog’s activity level while also supporting their natural feeding behaviors and providing a valuable source of nutrients.  

Gastrointestinal Diseases

Gastrointestinal diseases include anything that affects the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine, colon, or rectum. Signs to look out for include diarrhea, dehydration, decreased appetite, and weight loss. Salmonella infection, which is the most common type in hedgehogs, can be diagnosed with a fecal culture. Treatment involves supportive care and antibiotics. It is also important to consider that this bacteria can be spread to humans – Salmonella is a zoonotic disease – therefore, we must be careful when handling and treating potentially infected animals.

Fractured teeth can make it difficult for your hedgehog to eat, which can lead to unwanted weight loss and excessive salivation. Dental radiographs and an oral exam can diagnose those bad teeth, and treatment includes pain medicine, antibiotics, and potentially even tooth extractions if the fracture is causing additional problems.

Diarrhea and intestinal inflammation are somewhat non-specific signs, which means they can result from a variety of different problems ranging from an inappropriate diet to a bacterial infection. The specific cause of these issues can be diagnosed using diet trials, fecal cultures, and radiographs, and the specific findings will guide the treatment. One specific disease, Hepatic lipidosis, is relatively common in hedgehogs and can develop as a result of any disease that leads to a sudden lack of appetite, like infections or cancer.

Cancer

Cancer is unfortunately common in hedgehogs above the age of 3 years old. They can get many different types of cancer including squamous cell carcinomas, cutaneous mast cell tumors, mammary gland tumors, cutaneous hemangiosarcomas, and reproductive tumors, all of which must be removed. Signs vary based on the type of cancer that they have, but they can include difficulty eating, lethargy, weakness, swelling of the belly, weight loss, blood in the urine, or vaginal discharge. Diagnosis can potentially require bloodwork, radiographs, ultrasound, or a biopsy, and treatment involves removing the tumor, supportive care, and possibly chemotherapy and radiation.

Heart Disease

Heart disease in hedgehogs is usually in the form of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), which means one or more of the heart’s chambers are enlarged. Hedgehogs with DCM can experience difficulty breathing, lethargy, weight loss, and potentially a heart murmur, but it can also lead to sudden death if not treated when these signs arise. Therapy involves medication to manage chronic heart failure, but unfortunately the damage to the heart is irreversible.

Respiratory Disease

Hedgehogs are sensitive to respiratory disease  caused by Bordetella, Pasteurella, and Corynebacterium infections. Watch out for sneezing, nasal discharge, or difficulty breathing. Diagnosis involves radiographs and a culture of their discharge and is treated with antibiotics. . In severe cases, oxygen and opening of the airways  may be needed to avoid  a serious lack of oxygen.

Neurological Disease

Wobbly hedgehog syndrome is a neurologic condition characterized by progressive loss of control of their limbs and weight loss that ultimately leads to paralysis. It can potentially be fatal. The cause of wobbly hedgehog is unknown, however, genetics is believed to play a role. Treatment involves supportive care and hand feeding. Unfortunately,  there is  no cure for this condition.

Musculoskeletal Injuries

Musculoskeletal injuries involve those that affect the hedgehog’s ability to move and use their muscles. Some common injuries include strangling of their little toes and legs due to frayed cloth in bedding (chewed by hedgehogs, of course) and overgrown toenails that get caught in the cage or grow into their footpad. Avoid injuries like these with consistent grooming and monitoring of their environment.

Zoonotic Disease

Should you be concerned about your own safety if your hedgehog gets sick? Some of the diseases we discussed, like Salmonella and dermatophytosis, can spread from hedgehogs to humans. Also, foot and mouth disease, which is highly contagious in humans, has been documented in wild-caught hedgehogs but not in any that are captive bred. Diseases like this are a great reminder of why it is so important to:

• Acquire exotic pets from appropriate and reputable breeders, and
• Give wildlife their space and call a professional if they are in need of help.

Hedgehogs are vulnerable to many different diseases, as are most pets. When it comes to finding and diagnosing these problems, attentive owners are vital to a veterinarian’s success. You know your hedgehog better than anyone else, so you are the best equipped to determine when they are acting out of the ordinary and need to be seen by a veterinarian.