What is it?

Normal Anatomy

Each animal has two kidneys, which make urine. Each kidney has a collection tube, called the ureter, that connects to the bladder at a location named the trigone. Urine is emptied from the bladder through a single tube called the urethra. Therefore, urine moves from the kidneys, through the ureters, and into the urinary bladder, where the urine is stored until the pet purposely pees. When urination occurs, urine empties through the urethra outside the body.

Two Types

There are two types of ectopic ureters based on where these collection tubes connect inside the pet’s body. Ectopic ureters do not connect and open at the bladder trigone, as they do in a normal animal.

Intramural ectopic ureter:

This type is the most common type in dogs. The collection tubes attach to the bladder at the trigone but then tunnel through the bladder wall, finally opening downstream from the bladder (i.e., the urethra).

Cats

• Sex: Both females and males equally
• Breeds: Himalayan, Persian, Maine Coon
• Age: Mostly young pets

Dogs

• Sex: Females nine times more likely than males
• Breeds: Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Siberian Husky, West Highland White Terrier, Miniature Poodle, Newfoundland, and Soft Coated Wheaten Terriers
• Age: Mostly young pets

What are the signs?

• Urine leakage or dribbling (incontinence)
• Hard to house train; lots of accidents
• Urinary tract infection, more common in females
• Licking of genital area
• Rash on the genital area
• Urine staining and genital area is persistently wet
• Male dogs can have fewer signs and develop signs of urinary incontinence later in life.
• Not all cats and dogs will show signs.

How is it Diagnosed?

A complete physical exam and basic diagnostic tests, such as a complete blood count, blood chemistry, and urine analysis and culture will be done first.

Diagnosis requires imaging. The method chosen depends on availability, training of the person doing the imaging, and your animal’s specific case. There is no one imaging method that is the best, and multiple methods may be needed.

Radiographs and ultrasound are two imaging methods that show the kidney shape and size.

Contrast CT and cystoscopy are two methods that are gaining popularity as they give a better visual of the ureters. Cystoscopy is a procedure where a small camera is placed at the pet’s urethral opening and goes into the body looking for the ureter openings. It gives the veterinarian a great visual of where the abnormality is located.

The type of ectopic ureter, location, and size have no effect on the prognosis and outcome of treatment. However, imaging is necessary to determine which surgical procedure to perform and the surgical approach the veterinarian will use.

• Radiographs are usually readily available and cost-effective, but have limited ability to identify specifics.
• Ultrasounds are non-invasive, visualize much of the urinary tract, and are relatively readily available. Your veterinarian may be able to diagnose ectopic ureters with ultrasounds, but it may be difficult to visualize the lower urinary tract
• CT scans provide a good visual of the entire urinary tract but are expensive and not always available
• Cystoscopy provide a good visual of the entire lower urinary tract and sometimes a repair can be done right then.  It is not always available.

What is the Surgery and Treatment?

The type of surgery used to correct the misplaced ureter depends on its location. Studies show that there is no significant increase in risk or complications between any of the surgeries. All the surgical options have similar long-term outcomes.

Ureteroneocystostomy

This procedure forms a new ureter and bladder opening. The surgery fixes the extramural type by creating a new bladder opening for the ureter in the correct spot. This surgery may cause swelling of the ureter during healing, but it will resolve in a few weeks.

Ureteronephrectomy

This procedure removes the ureter and kidney. The surgery is done on patients that also have a nonfunctional or chronically infected kidney attached to it. However, it can be difficult to tell if a questionable kidney is not functioning.

Laser Cystoscopy

This surgery is a new method specific to treating the intramural type. The laser cuts a new ureter opening into the bladder at the normal area. Surgery is less expensive because it can be done right after the initial cystoscopic diagnosis, while the patient is still under general anesthesia.

What is the Aftercare and Long-term Outcome?

Depending on the type of surgery, the aftercare and time of recovery may vary. The main post-surgical problems are continued uncontrolled peeing, leakage of pee into the body, swelling at the surgical site, and urinary tract infection. Studies show uncontrolled peeing resolves in cats that get a ureteronephrectomy. For dogs undergoing any of the surgeries for the birth defect, almost half will still have urinary leakage. If this occurs, additional medications will be needed for the rest of the pet’s life to help control urination.

It is not clear why some animals have continued urine leakage after surgery. Pets affected with ectopic ureters should not be bred.

Some primary, or underlying, causes of ear infection include allergies (atopic dermatitis or food hypersensitivity) and narrowed ear canals. Studies have shown that bacteria can be found in combination with a Malassezia otitis.

Treatment 

Level One: The Simple Ear Infections

Most ear infections are cleared up simply with professional cleaning followed by medication at home. If only mild debris is present in the ear canals, simple disinfection and washing of the ear is adequate; however, in many cases, a full ear flush is needed to even examine the eardrum. For patient comfort, we recommend sedation for this procedure as the ears are sore and the instruments can be damaging if the pet jumps at the wrong time. A sample of ear discharge is commonly examined under the microscope so as to assist in selecting medications for home use. After a couple of weeks of home treatment, the ear canals are rechecked to be sure the infection is gone. In most cases this completes treatment but for stubborn cases, we must proceed to the next step.

Level Two: On-Going Ear Infections

Some dogs have chronic ear problems (the infection is not controlled by general medication or returns when general medication is discontinued). In these cases, the ear discharge should be cultured so that the precise organism can be pinpointed and treated specifically. Regular treatment at home with disinfecting ear washes should become part of the pet’s grooming routine.

Further testing may be in order to determine why the infection continues to recur. Allergy is the most common reason for recurrent ear problems but hormone imbalances can also be underlying causes.

Level Three: The End-Stage Ear

Some ear infections simply cannot be controlled with the above steps. These cases have transcended medical management and must proceed to surgical management. What this entails will depend on the state of the ear canal. Your veterinarian will make recommendations accordingly.

Ear infections are common and can be challenging. Fortunately, most cases are simple and easily cleared up. Be sure to recheck the ears as your veterinarian recommends because ending treatment early can lead to a continuing infection.

Complications of Yeast Ear Infection

Aural Hematoma

When a dog with uncomfortable ears shakes and scratches vigorously, a blood vessel in the earflap may rupture. This leads to bleeding into the tissues of the pinna (ear flap). The usual recommendation is to have the blood clots removed and the ear bandaged and cleaned under anesthesia. If the hematoma is not so big as to occlude the ear canal (thus preventing medication of the ear canal), the option to forgo surgery  exists; but without surgery, the ear may scar down into an abnormal appearance.

Proliferative Ear Canal Change and Middle Ear Infection

A routine ear infection is uncomfortable enough but if the infection persists, it can become an even bigger problem. The infection can lead to proliferation and scarring in the canal which makes the infection especially difficult (and potentially impossible) to clear up. Yeast organisms are joined by resistant bacteria and the infection becomes even more difficult to address.

The ear canal may mineralize and the middle ear may come to be involved, leading to nerve damage. Affected animals may have a head tilt, a lack of balance, and unusual back-and-forth eye movements (called “nystagmus.”) These symptoms are called vestibular signs”and are a complication of middle ear infection. Middle ear infections can also cause paralysis of the facial nerve, leading to a slack-jawed appearance on that side of the face.

Severe cases may require surgical intervention to remove the vertical portion of the ear canal (lateral ear resection)  or even remove and seal the ear canal (ear canal ablation). It is important to control ear infections before they reach this stage if at all possible. 

It isn’t long before the pet is seen scratching at his ears, shaking his head or holding one ear slightly dropped. Discharge and odor may be noticeable to the owner.

More on on Pseudomonas Infection

Gram negative rods appear pink after Gram staining and, as mentioned, they tend to be more resistant to antibiotics than Gram positive (blue-staining) bacteria. A particularly heinous bacterial species is almost always resistant to most conventional antibiotics from the beginning, and it deserves special mention: Pseudomonas aeruginosa. When ear cytology samples reveal a Gram negative infection, culture is recommended as treatment for Pseudomonas but must be definitive. Pseudomonas should be identified as soon as possible.

You might wonder how such a difficult bacterium comes to be in a given ear. Sometimes a dog is just unlucky but often Pseudomonas infection happens in ears that have been treated repeatedly for ear infections in the past. The unfortunate tendency is for normal ear bacteria to be killed off with each treatment course leaving only the most resistant bacteria to colonize the ear canal. Pseudomonas readily grows and prospers where less resistant bacteria have been cleared.

If you are lucky, a culture of the discharge will reveal that the Pseudomonas is still sensitive to a quinolone antibiotics such as enrofloxacin, marbofloxacin, or orbifloxacin. It should be noted that especially high doses of this type of antibiotic are needed to treat Pseudomonas in the ear and that inadequate dosing will just make Pseudomonas even more resistant. Therapy must be decisive.

If you are not as lucky, the culture may show there are no effective oral antibiotics or possibly no antibiotics at all that will be effective. In this situation, disinfectant rinses may be the only choice. 

Oral therapy (pills), if culture indicates it is likely to work, is generally combined with some kind of topical treatment. This may involve a commercial product, combination of products, or even a concoction your veterinarian mixes up.

Complications of Gram Negative Ear Infection

Aural Hematoma

When a dog with uncomfortable ears shakes and scratches vigorously, a blood vessel in the earflap may rupture. This leads to bleeding into the tissues of the pinna (see above illustration). The usual recommendation is to have the blood clots removed and the ear bandaged and cleaned under anesthesia. If the hematoma is not so big as to occlude the ear canal (thus preventing medication of the ear canal), the option to forgo surgery exists; but without surgery, the ear may scar down into an abnormal appearance.

Middle Ear Infection

Affected animals may have a head tilt, a lack of balance, and unusual back-and-forth eye movements (called nystagmus.) These symptoms are called vestibular signs and are a complication of middle ear infection. Middle ear infections can also cause paralysis of the facial nerve, leading to a slack-jawed appearance on that side of the face.

Severe cases may require surgical intervention to remove the vertical portion of the ear canal (lateral ear resection) or even remove and seal the ear canal (ear canal ablation). It is important to control ear infections before they reach this stage if at all possible.

Treatment

Level One: The Simple Ear Infections

Most ear infections are cleared up simply with professional cleaning followed by medication at home. If only mild debris is present in the ear canals, simple disinfection and washing of the ear is adequate; however, in many cases, a full ear flush is needed to even examine the eardrum. For patient comfort, we recommend sedation for this procedure as the ears are sore and the instruments can be damaging if the pet jumps at the wrong time. A sample of ear discharge is commonly examined under the microscope so as to assist in selecting medications for home use. After a couple of weeks of home treatment, the ear canals are rechecked to be sure the infection is gone. In most cases this completes treatment but for stubborn cases, we must proceed to the next step.

Level Two: On-Going Ear Infections

Some dogs have chronic ear problems (the infection is not controlled by general medication or returns when general medication is discontinued). In these cases, the ear discharge should be cultured so that the precise organism can be pinpointed and treated specifically. Regular treatment at home with disinfecting ear washes should become part of the pet’s grooming routine.

Further testing may be in order to determine why the infection continues to recur. Allergy is the most common reason for recurrent ear problems but hormone imbalances can also be underlying causes.

Level Three: The End-Stage Ear

Some ear infections simply cannot be controlled with the above steps. These cases have transcended medical management and must proceed to surgical management. What this entails will depend on the state of the ear canal. Your veterinarian will make recommendations accordingly.

Ear infections are common and can be challenging. Fortunately, most cases are simple and easily cleared up. Be sure to recheck the ears as your veterinarian recommends as premature discontinuance of treatment can lead to a continuing infection.

Gram negative ear infections do not have the same kind of leeway that other ear infections do. It is crucial that recheck appointments are not skipped because Gram negatives will simply get harder to clear if treatment is incomplete. Your veterinarian will need to confirm that the infection is resolved fully before medication can be withdrawn.

When your dog has an accident in the house, it is easy to believe the dog is acting out of spite or some other defiant motive, but he’s not. There can be medical causes or behavioral causes for eliminating in the house.  There can also be a lack of housetraining or a loss of house training.  Getting to the root of the problem will make sure your dog gets proper treatment and the best chance for success.

Medical Causes

When a previously housetrained dog begins to have accidents in the house, the first thing to do is to rule out medical causes.  

Any medical condition that causes increased frequency, urgency, or volume in urine or stool can lead to house soiling.  Having your dog evaluated by your veterinarian is a good idea. Your veterinarian may recommend specific testing, such as fecal, urine, and blood tests, based on your dog’s specific problems and the results of the dog’s physical exam.  In most cases, housetraining problems from these causes can be solved or improved by treating the medical condition and if needed, completing a quick housetraining refresher.  

Behavioral Causes

Once medical causes have been ruled out or treated, consider behavioral causes of house soiling. Some causes to consider include improper cleaning of previous accidents, scolding for elimination, fear of the relief area, marking, anxiety, or early learning.    

Housetraining Refresher

Once the cause of the problem is identified, re-establish the habit of eliminating outside by taking your dog through a housetraining refresher.   

The steps in housetraining: 

1.       take the dog outside often
2.       reward outside elimination
3.       confine the dog when you cannot supervise
4.       do not punish accidents

Thus, if your adult dog is house soiling, the first step to take is to have your veterinarian check him over for physical illnesses and evaluate for behavioral causes. Next, put him in a housetraining refresher course. This refresher will improve or fix the problem most of the time. If he is still house soiling, there may be more complicated reasons for this change in behavior. Contact your veterinarian or a veterinary behaviorist to diagnose and treat these more involved behaviors. 

Flat/Basic Collars

The most basic type of collar is just a circle, usually of fabric or leather, that is adjusted to fit around a dog’s neck and buckles on and off. Once adjusted the size of the circle doesn’t change if the dog or person pulls on the collar. It should be adjusted so two fingers can slip under the collar. On most dogs this fitting will allow the dog to comfortably wear the collar without being able to slip out of it. These collars work well for holding a dog’s id or rabies tags but are not great for walking dogs.

Without training, these basic collars do little to help control a dog who is pulling or lunging, despite putting pressure on the dog’s trachea and other vital structures in his neck if he does pull or lunge. Dogs with narrow faces can slip out of these collars if the person walking them is trying to pull the dog’s leash from in front.

Martingale /Greyhound/Limited Slip Collars

These collars are similar to a basic collar in their function with one difference. A Martingale collar has a small additional loop that tightens slightly if the leash is pulled on. This extra loop prevents dogs from being able to back out of the collars. However, like a basic collar, without training, they do not provide much assistance if a dog pulls or lunges.

Choke/Slip/Training Chains/Collars

These collars, often made of metal chain links, tighten when pulled. The only thing that limits how small the circle is on these collars is how tight it can be pulled around the dog’s neck. Without proper training and use, these collars do little to stop dogs from pulling or lunging despite choking the dog. These collars are used as part of correction- (punishment) based training. They can be quite difficult to use correctly. The collar must be appropriately fitted and placed on the dog. As with other punishment-based training, the handler’s timing must be excellent when delivering “corrections” (quickly and firmly tightening the collar around the dog’s neck). Using punishment on behaviors that have a fear or anxiety component can often increase the dog’s fear/anxiety and may make the dog more anxious, and symptoms of that anxiety, including aggression, can get worse.

There are limited slip collars that, as the name suggests, limit how much the collar can slip or tighten. Some of these are intended to function as Martingale collars, preventing the dog from being able to back out of the collar. Others are intended to be used like choke collars with the handler tugging the leash to give “corrections.”

Prong Collars

Like choke chains, these are usually metal collars that tighten around a dog’s neck. There are plastic versions that act in the same way. These collars are limited in how much they can tighten, unlike the choke chain. Instead they work by pressing prongs into the dog’s skin all around the dog’s neck as the collar tightens. Often people are told to use a prong collar because their dog pulls on leash or is reactive (lunges) when on leash. Many of these dogs are pulling or reactive because they are anxious. While the prong collar may decrease these behaviors, it often doesn’t. Even if the behaviors are decreased the underlying cause for them, the dog’s anxiety, isn’t decreased and may escalate due to the painful sensation of being grabbed and poked all around his neck when he pulls. This anxiety can be further heightened if the handler is actively using the prong collar to give “corrections” (quick jerks or “pops” with the collar to cause it to tighten) because of the difficulties in using any punishment-based training correctly, especially one that uses physical discomfort.

There are some dogs who do learn quickly (within just a couple of walks) that pulling on the leash will be uncomfortable while wearing a prong collar without their owners giving corrections. These dogs learn to walk calmly. In general, these dogs are friendly, not anxious or reactive and are often pulling because they want to walk faster than their handlers or prefer another direction. If the dog shows no signs of discomfort or anxiety on walks, this collar may be an acceptable tool. However, there are more humane ways to teach a dog to walk nicely on leash. These dogs tend to respond well to positive reinforcement’s loose-leash training.

Head Collars/Head Halters

Head collars/halters have the basic design of two connected loops, one around the dog’s snout and the other behind her ears. The leash attaches under her chin. It’s similar to using a halter to walk a horse. This design gives the handler the best physical control because you have control over the dog’s head. Head collars are not used to give “corrections.” They are designed to reduce pulling and lunging without the handler having to actively apply force. Although it may be somewhat unpleasant for dogs to pull against a head collar, it is rare to see an increase in anxiety or aggression with their use if the dog is properly acclimated to the collar. Most dogs will need a slow introduction because it is new and you want your dog to like whatever he has to wear.

Collars and Injuries

Any collar can potentially cause injury, especially if used incorrectly. The chances for injuries and the types seen with flat collars, Martingale collars, choke collars and prong collars are greater than with head collars. These can range from increased pressure in eyes, injuries to the dog’s throat, trachea, nerves, and blood vessels in the neck and spinal cord. If you are using a flat collar, a Martingale collar or a limited slip collar, you can reduce some risk for injury and pain by using a wider collar to distribute the force more evenly. Flat collars and Martingale collars are not typically used as training tools. They function to keep dogs “attached” to people with leashes.

Electronic training collars, especially those that deliver electric shocks (or “stimulation”) deserve special mention. As with any training technique that relies on a person applying an aversive (painful, unpleasant) stimulus they are difficult to use correctly. Because of the difficulties in using them correctly, electronic training collars can escalate anxiety in dogs, resulting in fearful or aggressive behaviors. When used incorrectly or if the collar malfunctions, in addition to the psychological pain the dog suffers, physical injuries including burns and skin punctures by the electrodes can occur. Although physical injuries are less likely with collars that deliver vibration, ultrasonic sounds, or citronella sprays they can occur. These collars can also cause increased anxiety and damage the bond between pet and owner.

Body Harnesses

There are two basic designs to body harnesses: harnesses that simply provide places to attach a leash, and those that are a little restrictive if dogs pull. Neither type of harness is intended to be used in a way that the handler actively “corrects” the dog. Harnesses don’t put pressure on the dog’s trachea or nearby blood vessels. This makes harnesses safer to use than collars in dogs with collapsing tracheas, neck injuries, or eye diseases like glaucoma.

Harnesses that Don’t Restrict Pulling

Just like a sled dog’s harness, properly fitted harnesses on which leashes are clipped onto the top or near the back distribute the force when a dog pulls. This distribution means that the dog isn’t choked, and the harness isn’t digging in and causing any discomfort. There are several different designs for this sort of harness, including step-in harnesses that can be helpful with dogs who aren’t comfortable about having their legs handled or people reaching under them, and can even teach them to pull. These harnesses are best for dogs who already walk well on leash. The even distribution of force can lead to some dogs pulling more because they aren’t bothered by how it feels when they do.

Front Attach Harnesses

These harnesses have an attachment for the leash on a strap that runs across the dog’s chest, just above the legs. Some have a second attachment point on a strap that runs over the top of the dog’s back, just behind the shoulders. Similar to head collars, these harnesses work by controlling the dog’s front end. The idea is that If the dog pulls, the pressure will turn him back towards the handler. There are some concerns that these harnesses, especially if dogs continue to pull, can cause shoulder injuries and change the way a dog walks.

Leashes/Leads

At its most basic, a leash is a thing that attaches the dog to the person. There are lots of ways to improve on this basic design, but let’s we look at some common designs and what to avoid.

Basic Leashes

Most leashes are made up of a combination of the leash itself, a handle and a clip to attach the leash to the dog. For general dog walking, whether in an urban or suburban area or just going into your veterinarian’s office, keep the leash 6 feet or less. It should be a material that’s comfortable on your hands. The buckle should be secure enough that it won’t open or break if your dog does suddenly pull, but light enough that it doesn’t weigh the dog down, a problem sometimes seen with small dogs.

For leash chewers, there are a few options. One is a leash made of a metal chain. These tend to be heavy and uncomfortable in the person’s hands and can damage the dog’s teeth. There are also leashes made from plastic-covered metal cables. These are stiff and difficult to handle and can also be bad for the dog’s teeth. Instead, look for leashes made of heavy-duty rope like climber’s rope or double layers of nylon. While they are not “chew proof,” these leashes will stand up to chewing while you teach your dog other ways to behave on-leash

Handle Varieties

The most basic leash has a simple loop at one end to slip over (not wrap around) your wrist or fingers while on a walk. The leash still needs to be held in your hand (or hands) to be able to maintain control over the dog. Leashes should never be wrapped around fingers or wrists to shorten them or try to get better control because if the dog lunges, you can break your bones, or your hand or arm can be damaged if the circulation is cut off. Either use a shorter leash or fold the leash and hold the folded leash in your hand .

Some leashes have second handles half-way down the leash. This extra handle allows you to easily hold the leash with two hands. The second handle is sometimes called a “traffic handle” because it keeps the dog close to you if you’re on a busy street or sidewalk.

Another nice design is a thumb handle. They have a wider handle, usually made of neoprene, with a hole in it for your thumb. The thumbhole makes it hard to accidentally drop the leash even if your dog pulls or you’re juggling the leash, treats, and a poop bag. These leashes are sometimes called “hands-free” but you’re still holding the leash in your hand.

Hands-Free Leashes

These leashes attach to belts or can be belted around your waist, leaving your hands free. These leashes are popular with people who run with their dogs. They can be used in training a dog to walk politely on leash. Caution must be used with these as a strong dog could easily pull over the person at the other end of the leash, especially on slippery surfaces. The best of these have releases the dog’s end can be easily released from the belt in case you fall.

Retractable Leashes

Retractable leashes, which have cords that roll out and retract to plastic hand-held housing, are not recommended except under specific situations. They are dangerous to people and dogs. Some retractable leashes, especially ones with thin cords , have resulted in injuries to people either by slicing into bystander’s legs if they get between the dog and handler or cutting off people’s fingers if they are twisted in the cord. People have also received rope burns trying to reel in their dogs and because of the retraction that happens when there is no pressure on the leash, people have received facial and eye injuries when clips have broken and leashes flew at their faces.

Dogs can receive similar injuries if entangled in these leashes. Many dogs, if they are running and the person drops the leash, become frightened by the sound of the plastic handle/leash housing “chasing them.” Dogs have been injured and killed trying to run away from their own retractable leashes.

From a training standpoint, these are terrible tools. It is hard to teach a dog who is being walked on a retractable leash not to pull. These leashes reward pulling by giving him more length. They also do not give the owner much control. Once the dog has pulled out the leash, unless the dog is well trained to come back or stop on command, the owner has no way of shortening the leash quickly. The locking mechanism can be difficult to use, which can contribute to these problems. Dogs have been hit by cars, gotten into fights or bitten people while on retractable leashes. The freedom of movement that makes these leashes attractive is also what can make them so dangerous.

Retractable leashes may be used safely with well-trained dogs who will stop on command and come back when called. They should only be used in places like open fields or beaches. In other words, places where there are no other people, dogs or obstacles for the leashes to get caught on, and dogs who will not lunge after things and will come back when called. Owners still need to take extra care that no one is injured by their leash, a problem that is unlikely with normal leashes. Before using a retractable leash, check the leash laws in the area as some locations have banned their use. Others allow them to be used with limitations, such as not allowing the length of the leash to exceed 6 feet if people are nearby.

L.I.M.A.

Leashes, collars and harnesses are all important tools for safely managing dogs. It’s also important that they are used humanely, which requires picking tools that fit with the L.I.M.A. principle: least intrusive minimally aversive. L.I.M.A. means that the collar or harness and leash doesn’t have negative effects on the dog’s behavior or mood and causes the least discomfort possible. The best way to achieve these goals is to not rely on leashes, harnesses or collars alone to keep a dog under control. Combine these tools with the much more powerful tool of positive reinforcement training for a dog who is happy and well behaved on walks.

With positive reinforcement — having something good happen when the animal does what you want — your dog can learn basic behaviors such as “sit,” “lie down,” “stay,” or even more complicated tricks, like rolling over, spinning or waving. You can train for a competition like agility or a job like search and rescue, or just for fun. With reward-based training, you can train both on-leash and off-leash.

Teaching your dog new things using rewards improves the dog’s mood, builds self-confidence, and opens a new path of communication strengthening the human-animal bond.

• Mood: When something good happens your mood improves. Reward-based training reduces anxiety by giving the dog an element of control in his life. Your dog learns exactly what he needs do to make good things happen.
  
• Self-confidence: Since reward-based training doesn’t involve force, like pushing a dog’s back end for a sit or tugging on a leash and collar to make her lie down, your dog has to figure out how to get rewards. As your dog learns more behaviors, even basic ones like “sit” or “stay,” she also learns how training works and learning new things becomes easier.
  
• Communication: Humans often use a lot of words to communicate. Dogs use body language. People often frustrate dogs or make them anxious because we can make it hard for dogs to learn what we expect of them. We may talk too much or use body language that doesn’t communicate the same message as our words. Giving cues (commands) and rewarding for desired behavior helps the dog understand that you both speak the same language. It helps the trainer learn to pay attention to the dog’s body language to see where the miscommunication may be.
  
• Human-animal bond: Training improves communication and with improved communication you end up with a happier and better-behaved dog. Isn’t that what we all want from our dogs: to be happy and easy to live with?

You may hear people say that reward-based training is “bribing the dog,” that reward-based trainers don’t know how to say, “No,” or set limits. Some people feel dogs should do things just to please people, not for rewards. Not true. Giving a dog a reward for doing something isn’t bribery, it’s payment for doing the “job” you asked him to do. The rewards are most often food, especially something extra delicious, but for some dogs the opportunity to play with a special toy can be highly motivating. Petting can be a reward for some dogs but it’s hard to use in when teaching new things because it can be very distracting. 

Dogs think in the “here and now” so the dog needs to get his reward immediately. Their brains can’t understand waiting until the end of the week to get a paycheck. You may like being praised by your boss, but getting your paycheck is what motivates you to go to work every day. Same thing for your dog; he enjoys it when you praise him and talk nicely to him, but if he’s doing a difficult job, like sitting still on a walk when he sees another dog, he needs that paycheck! (See Dog Training Using Rewards: How To) 

Why Not Use Punishments?

People may get frustrated when training isn’t going perfectly and start to look for quick fixes and often turn to punishment-based options. There’s a growing body of research showing us that dogs trained via positive reinforcement versus punishment-based training methods (especially using shock collars) are happier and less anxious during training, whether it’s learning new things or responding to cues they already know. Learning occurs more efficiently with reward-based training than other methods. Physically punishing an anxious or unsure animal can lead to aggression.

Training is a gift we give our dogs. It helps them know how to live by the rules that people set for them. Training with rewards makes sure that this gift isn’t a booby prize.

Rewards and Reinforcers

In theory you can use anything your dog likes as a reward.  Food is the easiest reward to use in most training situations.  Some dogs are motivated to work for access to a favorite toy, especially the chance to tug with someone.  Other things like belly rubs or the chance to snuggle on the sofa may not be practical in all situations, such as when you’re out on a walk or riding in the car.  Petting can be distracting, turning a training session into a petting session can interrupt what you are teaching your dog.  Save rewards like petting or snuggling for behaviors your dog already knows, not when you’re teaching something new.  

• Find a food that your dog loves, preferably something that the dog can eat quickly without a lot of chewing and that isn’t too high in calories.  Freeze-dried liver; cooked skinless-boneless chicken; semi-moist dog treats; and cut up hot dogs or cheese are all good choices.
  
• Use tiny pieces so you can give lots of rewards without your dog getting full or distracted between rewards.  For small dogs, treats should be broken into pieces as small as a lentil or split pea.  For larger dogs, the size of a kidney bean or Cheerio works well.
  
• The more difficult the behavior, the higher value rewards may have to be.  A dog who will sit perfectly in the house for a piece of his regular food may need something better, like hot dogs or cheese, to sit outside while walking when he sees a squirrel.  Think of it like hazardous duty pay.

The best way to train a new behavior is through continuous reinforcement.  This means you need to reward (reinforce) your dog each and every time he chooses to do the right thing.  That’s why the small, low calorie treats are so important.

Once your dog is 80-90% reliably performing the new behavior, you can switch to intermittent reinforcement.  This means you become like a slot machine.  He never knows when he will hit the jackpot so he keeps working to get the “win.”

Rewards must be given immediately.  Timing is crucial.  Remember to only reinforce the behaviors you desire.  For example, if you wait a little too long to reward your dog for staying, he may get frustrated and bark.  If you give the reward after the bark, you just taught your dog to bark for the things he wants.

Because we can’t always have a food reward available the instant we need one, it helps to pair food with a sound. This sound can be praise or a simple word like “Yes” or “Good” or a clicker.  The sound becomes a bridge (promise) letting the dog know that a treat is on the way.

Troubleshooting Reward Based Training

How do I get him to do what I want in the first place?

Rewarding your dog for doing the right thing means giving him the opportunity to offer the behaviors that you want to reward.  There are three basic ways to do this.

1. Next, as he’s getting ready to lie down, you say, “Down,” then reward him for lying down.  Pretty soon, you will notice that you can say, “Down” even when you’re not near the couch, and he will lie down waiting for the treat to appear.
   
2. Luring: Luring involves using something that your dog follows in order to get him to perform a behavior.  For example, teach a puppy to sit by holding a treat above his nose then slowly move it towards his tail.  As he tries to keep his eyes on the treat, his head goes up and his back end goes down.  Wait until he’s sitting to give the reward.  As you pass the treat (lure) over his head say, “Sit.”  Eventually you can phase out the lure and just say “Sit” to cue the desired behavior.
   
3. Shaping: This method involves rewarding small steps towards a final behavior that you want.  Shaping may be combined with either capturing or luring.  In agility training, a dog can be taught to walk up and tip a teeter-totter by having her:   
   1. Step just her front feet on to the teeter for a reward.
   2. Then introduce a lure to get her to follow it until she has all four feet on the teeter. 
   3. Gradually, giving rewards each step along the way, work to the point where she will walk all the way across the teeter without the lure. 

I know he knows it but he won’t do it.

Dogs are smart but they don’t always think the way we humans do.  There can be several reasons why a dog isn’t “obeying” a person.  We have to look at things from the dog’s perspective to problem solve what may be going on. 

• He doesn’t understand what you’re telling him to do.  Dogs communicate through body language.  When you’re training him, you may think he understands what you’re saying, but in reality, he may just be following your body language.  A common example of this sort of misunderstanding occurs when people train behaviors like “Sit” while standing straight and tall in front of their dog.  The dog might not understand “Sit” if the person is lying down or sitting in a chair. This is why it’s often easier for dogs to learn hand signals than verbal cues.  Hand signals also can be easier to transfer from person to person since they don’t depend on pronunciation or a specific tone of voice.
  
• There’s something much more interesting to do.  Dogs are often distracted when they see things that they want to play with or smell something to eat or roll in or hear interesting sounds around them.  It’s hard work for my terrier to shift his attention away from a squirrel on a walk.  I have to reward him with high-value treats and continuously reward him for focusing on me until the squirrel is gone.
  
• The dog anticipates something unpleasant. Even if we are training with rewards, we may accidentally do something the dog considers unpleasant.  This is a common problem with many dogs’ recall (“Come”).  People often call off-leash dogs to “come” to them when it is time to leave the park or put the dog back in the house before leaving for work.  The dog quickly learns that if he comes when called, the fun is over.  In this case, it’s important to practice the recall in a variety of different situations with really high-level rewards.  Also sometimes call the dog to come to you, reward him, then let him go back to playing.

• As the rain falls and the thunder starts, he becomes too anxious to do what’s asked of him.What do I do if my dog isn’t “getting it,” doesn’t “obey,” or is “being stubborn?”

People get frustrated if training isn’t going perfectly and start to look for quick fixes.  This frustration often leads them to try punishment-based options or so-called “balanced trainers” who use rewards to teach a behavior followed by punishment later in the training process.  There’s a growing body of research showing us that dogs trained via positive reinforcement versus punishment-based training methods (especially using shock collars) are happier and less anxious during training.  This is true whether they are learning something new or practicing cues they already know.  Learning occurs more efficiently with reward-based training than other methods.  Physically punishing an anxious or unsure animal can lead to aggression.

Simple Keys to Success

Keep it fun: If you and your dog aren’t enjoying the training session, go back to simple things that he already knows so you can have success or just take a break from training altogether.  Always train with a happy, upbeat voice and relaxed body language to signal to your dog that this is something fun.

Watch what your dog is telling you: If you see signs that your dog is getting anxious or frustrated, change the situation.  Do more simple training or move away from what’s making him anxious.  Early signs of anxiety include ears held back, tail down or tucked, eyes darting around or seeing the whites of his eyes, hunched posture, panting when not hot, taking treats more slowly, as well as responding slowly to cues he knows well.

Set realistic goals: Don’t try to do too much at once.  Keep training sessions short so they stay fun.  Break down what you want to teach into smaller pieces to make it more manageable.  For example, to teach a dog to lie down on a dog bed while you eat dinner you need to teach him to go to the bed, to get onto the bed, to lie down on the bed and to stay on the bed.  Teaching him to stay on the bed involves starting with just a couple of seconds and gradually building up the duration.  It also involves teaching him to stay there while you move further away from him and take your focus off of him.

Be consistent:  It’s hard to learn something new if the rules are constantly changing or you keep getting different instructions.  Make sure everyone who is training your dog uses the same cues (words, hand signals) and knows how to give rewards, especially the importance of giving rewards immediately when teaching something new.

Make yourself look great: If you want to look like the best trainer in the world, take something cute your dog naturally does and put it on cue.  For example, if your dog rolls on his back when you take his harness off after a walk, mark that behavior and give him a reward.  When you take off his harness say, “Roll” then reward the roll.  Pretty soon you can show off this trick to your friends.  One of my small dogs would stand on her back legs to check things out.   I gave it a name and rewarded it.  She really impressed people when I would ask her “What does a Meerkat do?” and she’s stand right up.

 Reward-based training isn’t just good for your dog.  Once you and your dog get the hang of it, it’s also fun and quite easy.  It really is a gift that keeps on giving.

Destructive chewing is a common problem in puppies and adult dogs.

Teething occurs in puppies up to eight months of age. That means chewing problems can be worse in younger animals than in older ones.

Adult dogs may be destructive chewers because they have separation anxiety, they’re playing, they’re hungry, they don’t get enough exercise, they weren’t properly trained as puppies, etc.

How can you minimize the damage to your home and household?

The basic methods are to keep your puppy/dog busy, prevent access to things that you don’t want damaged, and provide your pet with acceptable things to chew.

1. Keep your dog busy. Exercise, fun, reward-based training sessions, playtime, feeding from food dispensing toys rather than bowls, etc., allow your dog to use her brain and muscles.
   
2. Dog proof your house. In other words, keeping things (clothes, children’s toys, small objects, etc.) that can be destroyed off the floor and out of the dog’s reach. Keep closets, drawers, and toy boxes closed. Take objects off of any surface the dog can reach.
   
3. Supervise your dog. If there are times you cannot watch the dog while she’s running loose in the house, put her in a secure area (dog kennel, crate, enclosed room, etc.) or leash her to your belt. If you decide to use a kennel or crate, you’ll have to acclimatize her to it or she may develop other behavior problems.
   
4. If there are items that you cannot prevent your dog from having access to, you may decide to try deterrents, such as making the area around the object unpleasant (plastic rug runners or motion/vibration detectors).
   
5. If you catch your dog chewing an inappropriate object, don’t scare her or try to punish her. Use the treat-in-trade method by offering her a treat or something else worth trading for; when the pup is clearly invested in the new item, pick up the discarded one. With swapping, the pup will not fear an owner’s approach when she has something she values because the owner’s approach is generally associated with getting something better! Start using this technique early in her training and encourage swapping for lots of items so that she can learn the technique and will learn to readily give up even a highly prized object. It’s always better to reinforce positive behavior than to punish your pet because punishment can cause anxiety and other undesirable behaviors to develop. Dr Sophia Yin’s book Perfect Puppy in 7 days has more training tips.
   
6. Provide plenty of acceptable chew toys. What is acceptable depends on the size of your dog, what she finds appealing, etc. Many items have been commonly used (large bones, rawhide chews, plastic bones, hooves, Kong toys, rubber toys, puzzle/foraging toys, dental treats, and so on). However, some are no longer as acceptable as they once were. Cattle hooves, sterilized large bones, plastic bones, etc. can damage teeth. Rawhide chews may become choking hazards if the dog isn’t supervised and the rawhide taken away when it becomes small enough to be swallowed. Ask your veterinarian or veterinary dentist for professional preferences on what are safe, acceptable chew toys. Always raise/reward your dog for chewing appropriate things. Remember that toys will be destroyed; that’s how you know it’s a toy your dog likes.
   
7. Do not give your dog old shoes, clothes, or children’s toys for her to chew on. Dogs really can’t tell the difference between those items and your “good” shoes, clothes, etc.
   
8. If an animal is protecting resources and showing aggression, the animal should be avoided when it has those items and should have a veterinary behavior consultation because there may be a more complex problem going on.
   
9. If these things don’t help, or if the destructiveness gets worse, consult your veterinarian for help.

Destructive behaviors (chewing, barking, digging, etc.) are not only damaging to your home and possessions, but they can also lead to injury to your dog. Plus, they are a major reason dogs are taken to animal shelters and humane societies. With a little time and work, you and your dog should be able to have a good life together and could avoid being part of those statistics.

Why use a muzzle?

Comfortably wearing a muzzle is a great skill for any dog to have. Chances are it will be necessary to wear one at some point during their life. The veterinary hospital is the most common place a muzzle may be needed. Some veterinary procedures are painful and having a dog who is comfortable wearing a muzzle is beneficial. Acute abdominal pain, trauma (such as a broken leg), or back pain are examples of issues an owner may encounter at home with their dog that can be extremely painful. Any dog has the potential to bite and pain can make that more likely.

Muzzles can also provide greater freedom for many dogs. Muzzles should never be viewed as punishment, and we can often help dogs learn to ask to wear their muzzle. Historically, muzzles have been associated with aggressive or biting dogs. There was a stigma attached to muzzles that suggested people using them were not kind to their dog.

Muzzles can also be used to prevent dogs from ingesting inappropriate items such as discarded food, corncobs, dead animals, food wrappers, and bark mulch. These items can cause GI upset or obstructions and may require expensive and invasive surgeries. There are basket muzzles specially designed for this purpose.

Many dogs are fearful and fear increases the risk of biting. This danger often leads to an isolated life and makes it difficult for owners to give their dog enough enrichment and exercise. By teaching a dog to wear a muzzle, you can safely work on behavior modification while allowing your dog to be around other dogs and people. A bonus for the dog that does not want to be approached by unfamiliar people is that the average person does not want to approach a dog wearing a basket muzzle.

What kind of muzzle is best?

There are different kinds of muzzles. For short procedures at a veterinary clinic, a sleeve muzzle may be used. This type of muzzle prevents a dog from opening their mouth, which makes it difficult to pant, drink water, or eat treats. A basket muzzle allows the dog to pant, take treats, and drink but reduces potential injuries from a bite. There are many different styles of basket muzzles, including custom fit muzzles that may be needed for those dogs with wide or flat faces.

Desensitization/Counterconditioning steps

Desensitization starts with a muzzle, tasty treats, and a quiet environment. There are four main parts to this process: introducing the muzzle, increasing the time the dog’s face is in the muzzle, attaching the straps, and then increasing activity while wearing the muzzle.

Step 1: Introducing your Dog to the Muzzle

• Start with the muzzle on the floor with treats in and around it.
     
• Allow your dog to approach and move the muzzle to get the treats.
  
  • If your dog seems nervous about this step, try leaving the muzzle in an area of your home where they may feel more comfortable approaching it. Every now and then replenish the treats that are in and around the muzzle.
       
• Hold the basket muzzle with the opening facing your dog and the straps moved out of the way. Put treats inside the muzzle and offer it to your dog to approach and eat the treats.

• It should always be your dog moving towards the muzzle, not the muzzle moving towards your dog.
      
• When offering the muzzle, make sure it is near you and at your dog’s nose level.
      

Step 2: Increasing Time of Your Dog’s Nose in the Muzzle

• Present an empty muzzle in one hand with treats in the other hand behind your back. When your dog puts his nose in the muzzle looking for treats, instantly feed them through the muzzle.

• Prolong the time between treats while your dog’s nose is in the muzzle.
  
  • If your dog backs out of the muzzle, let them without pushing the muzzle toward them.
       
• Start with treating once every other second for three to five seconds
  
  • One, treat, three, treat, five, treat
       
• Then give one treat every third and fifth second for five to ten seconds
  
  • One, two, treat, four, treat, six, seven, treat, nine, treat
       
• Extend the time gradually in this way so that your dog is not expecting constant treats

Step 3: Introducing the straps

• When you first get the straps connected, immediately disconnect them, and give your dog a treat.

• The next time after connecting the straps, give your dog a treat and then take the muzzle off.
     
• Gradually increase the number of treats your dog can eat while wearing the muzzle.
    

Step 4: Make it fun

• Once your dog seems comfortable wearing the muzzle, have them wear it for something fun like a hike with you or a ride in the car.

• It is important to monitor your dog for discomfort while wearing the muzzle and take it off before they become worried about it.
     
• Creating positive associations with the muzzle will make it a more pleasant experience for your dog.
     

If your dog seems to be having a difficult time with any of these steps, back up to a step they seemed more confident with and reinforce before moving on to the next step.

To make the muzzle look more fun and less intimidating, decorate it! Some fun options are to use decorative tape or to glue colorful gems to it. You could decorate your dog’s muzzle to match your favorite sports team’s colors. Your dog won’t care what the muzzle looks like, but bright colors create a different association for the people around your dog.

Chances are, you’re already aware of the fact that antifreeze can be a dangerous poison to humans and animals alike. But do you know why the substance is so toxic to pets? Would you know what to do if your pet got into the chemical? 

Since the winter weather has many people reaching for the antifreeze, the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center (APCC) wants to make sure you know exactly why it’s so important to keep your pets safe from this toxin, what to do if you think they have been exposed, and what can be done to help your pet in the event of an emergency.  

What Makes Antifreeze a Dangerous Chemical? 

A key ingredient found in most antifreeze is ethylene glycol. Ethylene glycol is highly toxic and affects the nervous system and kidneys. What’s worse is that ethylene glycol has a sweet taste, so pets can easily be drawn to and ingest it. It takes only a small amount of ethylene glycol to be potentially fatal.  While problems may start within a couple of hours of ingestion, sometimes early signs may be missed in poisoning cases concerning this ingredient. In six to twelve hours, pets may be markedly ill.  

Where is Ethylene Glycol Found?

While ethylene glycol is most commonly found in antifreeze used in car radiators, that is not the only location it can be found.

Antifreeze may also be found in:

• The base of portable basketball hoops 
• Placed in toilets to ‘winterize’ a house and keep plumbing from freezing 
• Printer and pen inks 
• Eye masks
• Snow globes 
• Some household latex paints   

Signs of Ethylene Glycol/Antifreeze Poisoning

• Unsteadiness on the feet
• Vomiting
• Depression
• Increase in thirst and urination
• Loss of appetite
• Seizures

What Should you Do if your Pet has Ingested Antifreeze?

If you think your pet may have ingested antifreeze, the best thing to do is immediately take them to the veterinary hospital. You’ll also want to be sure to bring with you the packaging from the antifreeze, so the veterinarian can determine the best form of treatment based on the amount ingested and the ingredients listed in the product. 

At the hospital, the veterinarian will evaluate your pet and run lab tests. If it is uncertain whether your pet was exposed to antifreeze or exposed to enough to be cause for concern, there is a test the veterinarians can run to first determine if the exposure will be harmful or problematic. 

The good news is, if your pet has ingested antifreeze, there is an antidote. However, it is extremely important to get treatment started as soon as possible.

What Else Do you Need to Know?

Pet-safe antifreezes do exist. Instead of containing ethylene glycol, these versions of antifreeze contain propylene glycol—which has a much wider margin of safety. It is still best practice to keep pets out of any type of chemicals, even pet-safe antifreeze.