Normal Rabbit Weight

What was considered a normal rabbit weight in the past has been an overweight rabbit. Obesity is a problem with rabbits that eat a diet too high in calories and don’t get enough exercise, enrichment, and proper housing. A healthy rabbit should be slim and sleek, and you able to feel the ribs just under the skin without a thick layer of fat. The hindquarters should not have any folds of skin covering or interfering with the digestive tract or urinary openings. The dewlaps in females should not interfere with grooming or eating. If you are in doubt about your rabbit’s proper weight, please consult your veterinarian.

Cecotropes

Rabbits are herbivores (plant eaters) with a marvelous gastrointestinal (GI) tract that can extract nutrients from various sources. Rabbits are meant to live on a diet composed of large quantities of grasses and leaves. They also graze on flowers and fruits that can be found at different times of the year.

Rabbits succeed at making the most out of the foods they eat, foods that many other animals cannot digest. One of the keys to their success is the production of cecotropes, which are a type of dropping that is eaten by the rabbit directly from the anus and then digested. These droppings are not made up of waste materials but instead are rich in organisms that have come from the area of the intestinal tract called the cecum. These organisms are packed with nutrients such as amino acids (the building blocks of proteins), fatty acids, and various vitamins. The cecotropes, including the organisms, must be eaten and digested for the rabbit to get these nutrients. In this way, rabbits can extract the maximum nutrients from low-energy food materials. They literally produce some of their own food.

Healthy rabbits will eat their cecotropes directly from the anus, and you won’t see these droppings in the cage. If a rabbit has a medical problem that prevents them from reaching the anus, then you may see cecotropes on the cage floor.

Cecotropes are elongated, greenish in color, coated in mucous, and have a strong odor. If a rabbit eats a diet too rich in nutrients, such as primarily commercial pellets, or a diet excessively high in fruit, a few cecotropes may be found in the cage. If you see many cecotropes in the cage, consult your veterinarian, as this is abnormal.

Hay 

There are two basic types of hay available: grass and legume. 

Rabbits are designed to live primarily on a diet of grass and leaves, and hay can provide a good portion of that diet.

Grass hay

Grass hay is the most important part of your rabbit’s diet and should always be available in their cage. Grass hay is appropriate for all ages of rabbits, starting at weaning, and is important for your rabbit’s health in many ways: 

• It is rich in nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and proteins.
• Provides “food” for the micro-organisms that make up the cecotropes. 
• Provides indigestible fiber that promotes healthy motility (movement of contents) of the intestinal tract.
• Provides healthy chewing activity to promote proper wear of the teeth (a rabbit’s teeth grow continuously throughout life). 
• Chewing also provides healthy mental activity and a full feeling in the stomach, which decreases chewing inappropriate objects such as furniture and wallpaper.

Grass hays are made from timothy, meadow, oat, rye, barley, or Bermuda grasses. Try to feed mixed grass hay or provide two or more individual types. It is much preferable to feed a variety of grass hays if available. Grass hays are the healthiest and are rich in nutrients while providing the lower energy diet for a house rabbit. If you have a choice, choose sun-dried hay, which retains more nutrients than commercially dried hay. 

Alfalfa

Alfalfa hay used as a treat is fine but shouldn’t be used as the routine hay source for the average adult house rabbit.

No Straw

Do NOT feed straw. Straw lacks most nutrients and will lead to serious nutritional deficiencies if it is a major part of your rabbit’s diet.

Sources for hay include veterinary clinics, horse barns, feed stores, pet stores, rabbit clubs, and many online stores. 

• If you buy from a feed store or horse barn, select hay that has not been on the top of the pile to prevent animal or bird-dropping contamination.
• Buy hay that smells fresh; never buy damp, moldy, or old hay.

Store hay in an open bag in a dry place with good air circulation. Hay can be given to your pet in various ways, including in a hay rack attached to the side of the cage, in a box or basket within the cage or exercise area, or even placed in the litter box.

Rabbits often pass stools when eating, and placing some hay in the litter box can help with litter box training. They will not eat soiled hay, so you need not worry about sanitation. Always keep hay in the cage or exercise area and replenish as needed. You can also stuff hay into toilet paper rolls and other hiding areas as a fun way to increase mental exercise associated with foraging for food. Providing a regular source of grass hay is a major key in preventing many diseases in a pet rabbit.

A Word About Angora Rabbits

Angora rabbits have diet requirements different from other rabbit breeds. While some alfalfa or legume hay is recommended, consult your veterinarian about the best complete diet for your Angora. 

Feeding your rabbit a diet comprised primarily of green foods is never appropriate. The green foods in grocery stores do not have enough concentrated calories to sustain a rabbit’s normal body weight when used as the primary food source.  In the wild a rabbit would eat dried grasses and tree and bush leaves to obtain more calories. Greens are an important addition to the diet but should never be the total diet.

Start your rabbit on hay first if your rabbit has never eaten green foods before. This will help to make the appropriate changes in the flora (the stuff in your rabbit’s tummy made from the greens they eat) of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, including improving movement and production of cecotropes. In this way, you can avoid the problem of soft stools that are occasionally seen when you give greens to a rabbit that has never eaten hay or greens. This is not usually a dangerous disease; it is the rabbit’s intestinal tract changing from sluggish to more active. However, these soft stools can be messy, so changing to hay first for a month at a minimum will avoid this problem. Greens are appropriate for any rabbit of any age if the rabbit is already eating hay daily, as mentioned above.

Some resources, such as rabbit breeders, books, or websites, advise against feeding greens to rabbits under six months of age. Your veterinarian is the best informational source for feeding guidelines for your rabbit.

When selecting and using green foods, follow these recommendations:

• Buy (or grow) organic if possible. 
• Wash any green foods first.
• Make sure your rabbit is eating hay well first.
• Introduce greens a little at a time over several days and watch the stools for any change.
• Feeding a variety of at least three green foods daily provides a wider range of micronutrients and mental stimulation for your rabbit.
• Feed a minimum of about one packed cup of green foods per two pounds of body weight at least once a day, or divide this amount into two daily feedings.  

Occasionally, you may have a situation where a certain green food causes a soft stool. You will know if this is the case within 12 hours of feeding the offending food. If you are feeding a variety of greens and unsure which one is causing the problem, feed only one green food every 48 hours until the offending food is identified, then remove it from the diet. This is not usually dangerous, but it can be messy, and there is no need to give food that is causing a problem. If this occurs, you should consult with your veterinarian.  

There are many green foods that you can offer your rabbit. This would include grass you grow in your yard but should be fed only if no pesticides or other chemicals have been used. Consider growing a patch of grass for your bunnies. If not treated with chemicals, dandelions are an excellent source of nutrition.

The darker green a food is, the higher the nutritional value. This is why, for instance, iceberg lettuce is not recommended. It is not dangerous but is low in nutritional content. You can use packages of mixed salad greens if they contain dark-colored greens and are not comprised primarily of iceberg lettuce or romaine lettuce. Please, no salad dressing.

Green foods you might consider:  

Baby greens Bok Choy Borage Basil Broccoli (leaves and top) Brussels sprouts Cabbage (red, green, Chinese) Carrot/beet tops Celery (leaves are good) Chickory Collard greens Dandelion greens and flowers Dock

Endive Escarole Kale Leaf lettuce Mustard greens Parsley (Italian or flat leaf best) Radicchio Romaine lettuce Swiss chard (any color) Watercress

Fruits and Other Vegetables (Treat Foods)

Wild rabbits would have access to additional foods such as fruits, vegetables, and flowers depending on the time of year. These should only be a minority of the diet; feeding these treats in limited quantities is recommended. Some rabbits like these foods so well that they will eat them to the exclusion of all others, thereby creating a potential for health problems.

*TIP

Find at least one food in this list that your rabbit likes and feed a small amount daily to check on how good your rabbit’s appetite is.  If your rabbit will not eat their treat food, then there may be other problems brewing and you need to keep a close eye on your pet for health problems.

These treat foods are far healthier (and less expensive) than commercial treat foods sold for rabbits. Commercial treat foods are loaded with starch and fat and, if fed in quantity, can cause serious health problems, so they are best avoided. Read the label on any treat food to make sure the ingredients are not primarily based on grains. Sticking to natural and healthy treats for your rabbit is a better alternative.

For treat foods, follow the same guidelines listed above for selecting and using green foods except for the amount. You can feed your rabbit one teaspoon per two pounds of body weight per week of any combination of the foods below. Foods from this list can be fed daily, and you may even wish to use them as part of a reward or training system

Apple Bean or alfalfa sprouts Blackberries Blueberries Cactus fruit Carrots Cherries Cranberries Green or red bell peppers Kiwi Fruit	Mango Melons Papaya Pea pods (flat, NO peas) Peach Pear Pineapple Raspberries Squash
Edible flowers from the garden (organically grown and not from a florist), such as roses, nasturtiums, daylilies, pansies, and snapdragons

Dried fruit can also be used, but since it is so concentrated, use only one-third of the amount as fresh. 

Although a pet rabbit can eat small amounts of starchy or fatty foods without ill effects, the problem is that people often feed excess amounts because the rabbits eat these foods so greedily. It is recommended to completely avoid high starch and/or fat foods for your rabbit. This way, you will avoid any potential problems these foods can cause, including obesity and serious GI disease. It is always easier to prevent than to treat a disease.

Examples of high-fat and/or starch foods to avoid include:

BreadsCerealsChocolateCornNutsOats

PeasRefined sugarSeedsWheatAny other grains not listed

Commercial Rabbit Pellets

Rabbit pellets should generally only comprise a small portion of your pet rabbit’s diet. There are much healthier commercial rabbit pellets available now than 20 or more years ago. Then, all the pellets were alfalfa and grain-based, and although they successfully produced fast-growing rabbits that put on weight quickly, they caused several serious problems for pet rabbits. 

Rabbits should be fed uniformly extruded pellets, and pellet mixtures should be avoided. Rabbits will always choose to eat the tasty parts, leaving behind the nutritious extruded pellets

When a concentrated, uniform food source is fed to the exclusion of anything else in the diet, problems can occur:

• High-calorie content can lead to obesity. It’s easy to overfeed because the rabbit is always acting “hungry.” Unfortunately, the concentrated and small form of the pellets does not lead to a feeling of fullness that a diet based on grass hay can provide. Even though rabbits should eat according to their caloric needs, in captivity with boredom, they will overeat pellets if they are provided free choice.
• Low, indigestible fiber content can lead to a sluggish GI tract and eventually more serious GI disease, including ileus or dysbiosis (which means changes or imbalances in gut bacteria).
• Doesn’t promote normal tooth wear due to the concentrated nature of the food – a couple of chews and the food is pulverized instead of the much longer chewing time to break down hay or greens. 
• Lack of sufficient chewing activity and a “full feeling” in the stomach due to the concentrated nature of the food may lead to behavioral problems, such as inappropriate or excessive chewing on furniture, plants, and floorboards.  This could be likened to a sense of boredom.  Rabbits in the wild spend much of their day eating, and pellets can be eaten in a few minutes. 
• The concentrated, dry nature of pellets may not promote normal water intake, resulting in potential urinary tract diseases such as “toothpaste” or sludgy urine.  A rabbit’s natural diet would not be this consistently low in moisture.

The recommendation for feeding pellets would be to comprise 10% of the healthy rabbit’s diet and maximally no more than 20%. Sometimes, it may be necessary to feed a higher amount for these reasons:

• To implement weight gain most often related to a debilitating illness such as end-stage dental disease.
• When unable to feed a varied diet of good-quality grass hay and a variety of green foods, pellets will help to cover some of the trace nutrients that might be missed in a restricted diet.

When selecting a pellet, look for:

• 18% or higher in fiber 
• 2.5% or lower in fat
• 16% or less in protein
• 1.0 % or less in calcium
• Do not buy pellet mixes containing seeds, dried fruits, or nuts
• Buy pellets based on grass hays (timothy, orchard grass, brome, etc.), not alfalfa hay (your veterinarian will advise you if an alfalfa-based pellet is needed for situations in ill rabbits where weight gain may be needed)

A recommended amount of pellets for healthy rabbits, other than giant breeds, is approximately ¼ cups per four lbs. of body weight daily. This can be divided and fed twice a day or fed once daily. Pellets can even be fed individually and used in a training program. For dwarf bunnies, a 1/8 cup daily maximum is recommended. The amount should be less if your rabbit has medical issues.

Eliminating pellets from the diet may be preferable for rabbits with chronic GI problems or excessive weight issues.

Water

Water should always be available and changed daily. Dirty water containers can be a breeding ground for bacteria. Use either a water bottle or a heavy bowl that is weighted or secured to the side of the cage so it does not tip over. Research has shown that most rabbits prefer to drink from a bowl, so a bowl should always be offered. Some rabbits are not used to a bowl and need water from a bottle. Do not use medications or vitamins in the water because your rabbit may not drink if the taste or color is altered. Water consumption may be minimal if your rabbit eats enough greens.

Vitamins/Lactobacillus/Enzymes

Vitamins are unnecessary for a healthy rabbit. Rabbits will obtain all the vitamins they need from their cecotropes, grass hay, green foods, and small amounts of pellets. The misuse of vitamins can cause serious disease. Your veterinarian may prescribe vitamin therapy if your rabbit becomes ill, particularly if they cannot eat the cecotropes. Do not use supplemental vitamins in a healthy pet. In addition, rabbits on a healthy diet do not need a salt or mineral block; their use has been associated with severe disease.

Lactobacillus or acidophilus are bacteria found in the GI tracts of several species.

Past recommendations were to feed rabbits yogurt (which contains active cultures of these organisms) to improve their GI tract health. However, there is no benefit to feeding these bacteria to rabbits because Lactobacillus does not hold an important place in the rabbit GI tract, and adult rabbits may not adequately digest dairy products.

Other products called probiotics, which contain bacteria more specific to the rabbit GI tract, are available, but their benefits are still controversial. A rabbit on a healthy diet of grass, hay, and green foods should be able to maintain a normal population of bacteria without additional supplementation. Routine use of probiotics in rabbits is not recommended.

Some older texts recommend feeding rabbits digestive enzymes, such as pineapple juice, to help dissolve hairballs. This does not benefit the rabbit because such products do not dissolve hair.

It is always best to consult with your veterinarian if you have questions or if you need feeding recommendations for your pet rabbit or rabbits. 

While there are several kinds of cardiomyopathy, at this time, it seems that guinea pigs only get DCM.

DCM is a disease in which the heart muscle weakens and cannot pump normally. As we and all mammals have four chambers, or atria and ventricles, in our hearts, so do guinea pigs. They may have issues with valves, the anatomical parts of the heart that let blood flow in the right direction through these chambers. Sometimes these valves can stop working properly over time, or there may be other issues with the heart, causing it not to pump as well as it should. This can create a cascade of other effects in which the heart enlarges and one or more heart valves leak, usually resulting in congestive heart failure.

Guinea pigs showing signs of respiratory distress should always be evaluated for heart disease. Respiratory distress may look like open-mouth breathing, panting (moving the chest and abdomen drastically while breathing, or coughing).

Signs of DCM in guinea pigs may include:

1.   a “hooting” vocalization;
2.   labored breathing;
3.   reduced activity and lethargy;
4.   cough or wheezing;
5.   chronic upper respiratory infections;
6.   fluid in the lungs;
7.   loss of appetite and weight loss;
8.   malocclusion (teeth that have not come in normally);
9.   enlarged heart is seen on an X-ray;
10.   ear margins may become necrotic from poor circulation
      (tissue death on pink ears appears as black marins, on black ears as white margins);
11.   bluish or pale mucous membrane color;
12.   difficulty coming around after being put under anesthesia; and
13.   deep sleeping, easy to pick up (does not run away).

We don’t really know why guinea pigs get DCM, and no one knows how much diet and genetics play into it. Some guinea pig owners report to their veterinarian that heart problems can run in families, so genetics likely plays some part.

Enlarged hearts are not uncommon in guinea pigs and have several causes. For hearts that are simply enlarged, X-rays are usually enough for diagnosis, but that is not quite enough for DCM.

For DCM, a thorough examination and history are always necessary to rule out other serious medical conditions, such as sinus infections, tumors, and dental disease. Your veterinarian will listen to your pig’s heart, using a stethoscope, to see if there are any unusual sounds, observe the respiratory rate, and look at the gums as pale or bluish (cyanotic) gums signify poor blood circulation. To diagnose heart conditions, X-rays, electrocardiograms that record the heart’s electrical signals, and ultrasounds are used. Guinea pigs are usually anesthetized for the electrocardiogram.

If your clinic does not have the right diagnostic equipment in the right size, your veterinarian may refer you to a facility that does.

Heart disease is not curable but only managed. Overall, the prognosis for guinea pigs with dilated cardiomyopathy is poor, and many do not survive for more than three months after diagnosis. The enzyme angiotensin II constricts blood vessels, reducing blood flow, so a type of medication called an ACE inhibitor (angiotensin-converting enzyme) is used for mild cases of DCM, often combined with diuretics that cause water loss, lessening pressure on the fluid-filled lungs. These two drugs seem to be safe and effective in guinea pigs. DCM typically ends in heart failure, and these drugs normally slow down the inevitable. Your guinea pig may need to be re-examined at certain intervals, and higher doses or additional medications at some point may be necessary as well.

As always, discuss your options with your veterinarian to decide what may be best for your pet.

Signs of DIM in Ferrets

The signs of DIM appear suddenly and can worsen rapidly. A ferret can behave perfectly normally one day and show severe signs of DIM the next. Signs are variable, but they commonly include a lack of energy and appetite, weight loss, nausea and vomiting, fever, depression, and/or weakness that can impair their ability to walk. Other signs commonly seen that are not specific to just DIM include excess mucus around their eyes and nose, increased heart rate breathing rate, and changes to the skin. Ferrets with DIM are often found lying down, are reluctant to move and react painfully to touch, especially around their back.

Diagnostics

Diagnosing DIM can be challenging because the signs are commonly seen with many other diseases and we do not fully understand what causes it. There is no definitive diagnosis for DIM, which means there is no test to determine with 100% certainty whether or not your pet has this disease. If your ferret shows a combination of these signs, your veterinarian will most likely complete blood and urine tests, radiographs, and possibly an ultrasound to assess the severity of the disease progression and try to rule out other potential causes. DIM is a diagnosis of exclusion, which means your veterinarian will run many tests to rule out other potential causes before concluding that your pet has DIM. The primary tool used for diagnosing DIM is a muscle biopsy where a small piece of muscle will be removed while the animal is sedated to look for signs of inflammation or infection within the tissue. However, the small section of muscle removed may not be representative of the entire muscle tissue, so a biopsy that is negative for inflammation does not guarantee that other muscles are not being affected by the disease.

Treatment and Prognosis

Unfortunately, due to the complexity of the disease, a general lack of response to treatment is one of the ways that DIM is diagnosed. Some veterinarians have had success treating this.  Due to suspicion that DIM could be an immune-mediated disease, recent recommendations include treating suspected DIM ferrets with corticosteroids (such as prednisolone) and other immune system suppressants.  A treatment protocol of prednisolone, chloramphenicol, and cyclophosphamide may suppress overall inflammation and auto-immune activity, and potentially, further progression of the disease. This protocol is recommended by the American Ferret Association, and continued research needs to be done to determine overall treatment effectiveness.

Supportive care is also very important and involves things like hand feeding, fluid therapy, pain medicine, and general antibiotics. Supportive care is meant to help relieve some of the patient’s symptoms and suffering, but it has not been shown to effectively stop the progression of the disease.

DIM, unfortunately, still has a poor prognosis in ferrets. Since it was first described in 2003, DIM has been considered a fatal disease, as most of the cases confirmed by muscle biopsy resulted in death within several weeks. However, more ferrets are now surviving this condition with improved treatment. Veterinarians and researchers are actively studying these cases and the treatments used to help develop the most effective treatment possible for improving the prognosis of patients with DIM.

Chinchillas are playful and intelligent pets, but they are not suited for all households. Although they are social and interactive, they are also messy and destructive. They make a significant mess when allowed out of the cage. Chinchillas are extremely active and need a significant amount of out of cage time and exercise. In an ideal world, they would be kept uncaged, but their penchant for chewing everything within reach and defecating anywhere they wish prevents that in most households. Unfortunately, they are intelligent, social, and active, and therefore not well suited for cage life. Fortunately, they are reasonably hardy animals and if properly fed and cared for, do not develop a large array of serious medical concerns.

Proper husbandry prevents many of the common medical issues. The vast majority of diseases seen by veterinarians in these friendly, appealing pets relate directly to poor husbandry. Although somewhat expensive, the adorable face and soft fur can often lead to impulse purchases, without an owner realizing the extent of the care required to keep them healthy. This, combined with the over-marketing of foods not designed for their intestinal tract can lead to significant health problems over their long life span. Being educated about what these pets need can go a long way towards improving their overall wellbeing.

Chinchillas are native to the Andes Mountains of South America. They dwell primarily at high altitudes, and are currently only found to exist in the wild in Chile. They are named after the Chincha people of the Andes, who once wore their thick fur, but unfortunately, overhunting has driven the wild chinchilla to near extinction. Most chinchillas used today in the fur industry are farm-raised.

In their natural environment, chinchillas live in large groups hidden in burrows and crevices. They are prey for a variety of animals (birds, snakes, and wild omnivores such as canines and skunks) and therefore have retained the skittish nature of prey species. They are able to jump as high as 6 feet, and will defend themselves by spraying urine or allowing large patches of fur to fall out if bitten (“fur slip”). This can be important when you take your chin to the veterinarian, where chinchillas may feel threatened and release fur; sometimes that is a surprise to a new owner. Their fine bones are also delicate, and fractures may inadvertently occur during restraint. Many veterinarians prefer to examine chinchillas from within the confines of a small hand towel wrapped around the it to keep the delicate animal accessible but free from injury.

Diet

The primary diet in the wild is high in fiber, and includes plant leaves, stems, bark, wild fruits, and small insects. This is a far cry from the most common, yet unbalanced, modern diet of pellets for the pet chinchilla. This natural high-fiber fare promotes health throughout the digestive tract, starting with the continuously growing teeth and ending with the stool, which is commonly eaten and re-processed. Calling a chinchilla “a digestive tract covered in fur” would be a reasonable description, and it is imperative to feed them adequately to maintain health.

Lively and entertaining, these delightful little creatures do make wonderful pets in households with a high tolerance for messes and destruction. They are likely not appropriate for houses with small children or predator-type animals, unless the interactions are closely monitored to prevent injury to the chinchilla.

They are one of the longest-lived domestic rodents, with life expectancies topping 12 years when properly housed.

Husbandry

Caging

Chinchillas are inquisitive, active, and intelligent. They require a startlingly large amount of space, particularly if they are caged for long periods of time. A large 2-story ferret cage (6 ft X 6 ft X 4 ft) would appropriately house one to two chinchillas. The larger the number of pets, the more space they will require.

Although many owners prefer a wire mesh cage to allow droppings to pass through, this can lead to injury should a foot or leg become entrapped in the wire. Plastic bottom cages can also be problematic because chinchillas will commonly chew through them. Additionally, the urine tends to stain plastic, and is difficult to clean. Most chinchillas are not readily trained to a litter box and tend to urinate and defecate where they wish. For many animals, the best solution is a wire cage with the bottom covered with a thick layer of hay. In this manner, it serves a dual purpose of a snack and soft bedding to protect the feet of the animals. The bedding will need to be thick and protective, absorbent as possible, and digestible if eaten. Regardless of bedding chosen, the cage will need regular cleaning either daily or at least every other day.

Enrichment

The cage should be outfitted with plenty of things to keep the intelligent chinchilla mind and large teeth busy. Ledge shelves to perch on, cardboard boxes to hide in and eat, and chewing toys are all important. Since chinchillas are so quick to destroy their chew toys, it is hard financially to keep them supplied from the local pet store. A good choice is safe wood trees that have not been sprayed with pesticides, and branches from apple and other fruit trees, non-resinous pine, and beech. Although maple is sometimes recommended for chewing, it’s not a good idea as chinchillas can develop a severe case of blood in their urine after eating dried maple leaves. 

Oxbow makes a series of edible, safe, nutritious toys, including hay mats, tubes, and houses. These tend to be popular and safe, although over time, can prove expensive. Chinchillas do not need salt or mineral blocks if they are being fed a proper balanced diet.

Other inexpensive chew toys include deer antler and bones, which can be purchased inexpensively in bulk from wildlife rehabilitation facilities. 

Many of the chew toys in pet stores are treated wood, expensive, and may only have a life expectancy of hours once they enter the chinchilla’s cage.

Chinchillas have a high energy level, and equipping the cage with an oversized wheel designed specifically for chinchilla use will provide endless hours of entertainment, exercise, and all-out fun. There are several different varieties available, and some chins do not take to them instinctively but have to be taught how to use them, but once they have caught on, it can be difficult to pry them out of their wheels. Chinchillas are primarily nocturnal, so it is particularly helpful to purchase a quiet wheel in order to maintain the sanity of the people in the house. Although more expensive, it certainly is worth a few extra dollars to prevent a wheel from squeaking at 2 a.m.

Chinchillas are somewhat high strung, and do not do well in congested and busy areas of the house. Additionally, they are largely nocturnal, and their noisy night time play will likely disrupt their sleeping humans. 

They are extremely heat sensitive. They should not be housed near a heat source or window. In fact, a chinchilla exposed to over 75°F or in a high humidity environment can experience heat stroke. An underground basement where it stays cool year round is good, and it’s is out of way of day to day household operations but has easy access for playtime. Many people add strips of slate or quartz into the cages for chinchillas to sit on as a “cool spot” during the warmest part of the year. 

Adding warmth, humidity, and stress is a recipe for a chinchilla disaster, and owners should carefully choose their cage settings with this in mind. 

Dust Bath

Because of the extremely dense hair coat, chinchillas should not be bathed with water. Dampness can predispose them to fungal infections since they take a long time to dry. They enjoy dust bathing on a regular basis. Commercial bath formulas made of volcanic ash are available, as are “bath houses” that help to contain some of the dusty mess. Other people like to use cornstarch in a shallow dish or crock. Most chins really love to bathe, and it is entertaining to set out the bath and step back and watch the spin cycle! Some reports recommend limiting bathing to a few days a week to prevent eye and respiratory irritations; however, many chinchillas are allowed to bathe whenever they wish and have no problems. 

Several dust formulations are available on the market. Choose one that is reasonably scent free with fine particles that will easily penetrate the thick coat. Use products that only contain volcanic ash or pumice dust and avoid unnecessary additives. The bathing area will also need to have regular cleaning since many chinchillas will urinate and defecate in their bathtub. (Remember, they are not exactly the cleanest of creatures to have in the house.)

If males and females are to be housed together, precautions are indicated, which will be discussed below.

Social Structure

Chinchillas are naturally a herd animal, and do much better in small groups than in solo housing. Unfortunately, however, female chinchillas do tend to be aggressive towards male chinchillas and can cause significant injury and even death. For this reason, many people prefer to have “single sex” groupings of chinchillas. One way around the issue is to divide the living quarters with a barrier and a small hole in the barrier. The male, being much smaller than the female, can cross the barrier to spend time with the female but also has the option to retreat to an area that the significantly larger female cannot access. Chinchillas are reasonably prolific, however, and if this option is chosen, surgical sterilization should certainly be considered. Small groupings of single sex animals are often also quite compatible and may be easier for owners to maintain.

Nutritional Requirements

Proper husbandry goes a long way to extending their life expectancy. Chinchillas are the Labrador retrievers of the rodent world. They will beg and plead themselves into all kinds of snacks that are not necessarily in their best interest. Similarly, they will eat vast quantities of food and overwhelm their intestinal tract. The average chinchilla, left to its own devices, would consume massive amounts of fruits, sweetened yogurt droplets, seeded/nut treats, and pellets, none of which relate back to the natural diet of a high fiber, low sugar, low protein combination.

Similar to rabbits and other herbivores, chinchillas are basically one giant intestinal tract with ears. From nose to tail, all of the internal organs are squeezed into corners of the body by the GI tract. They are designed to eat high fiber materials with a low nutritional content, and are programmed to spend a tremendous part of the day foraging for food. This combines with the anatomic reality of teeth that continue to grow throughout life, and the animal needs to eat a high fiber, low digestibility food. This is at complete opposite extremes with what is currently marketed in our pet stores of “chinchilla pellets” and “chinchilla treats” that are made up primarily of sugars.

A well-balanced diet is composed of a small amount (approximately 1 tablespoon per animal) of high-quality chinchilla pellets (such as Oxbow or Zupreem). These pellets should contain no dried fruits, vegetables, seeds or nuts.

The bulk of the diet should be made up of free-choice, high-quality sun-dried hay. Companies such as Oxbow produce a variety of different flavors, which can be rotated to provide variety and environmental enrichment. In general, any flavor of high-quality hay is appropriate, but alfalfa hay should be fed in small quantities, if at all. It is high in calcium and may be too rich for the chin’s intestinal tract. Some green leafy vegetables such as romaine, kale, endive, escarole, and spinach can also be offered.

Chinchillas will beg for, and eat, almost anything that is sweet, loaded with carbohydrates, and is bad for them. Unfortunately, these foods can upset the bacterial flora of the intestinal tract and can result in digestive upsets, bloat, diarrhea, and death. Diabetes is being diagnosed with increasing frequency in chinchillas, and many clinicians feel that improper diet may be the root cause of this, as well. Treats should be limited to two raisin-sized treats per animal per 24 hours. Safe snacks include raisins, rose hips, apple, Cheerios, dates, and limited amounts of other fruits.

Water is an essential nutrient for chinchillas, just like all species. However, once again, the sharp teeth of the chinchilla can cause problems with their water supply. Although most learn quickly to use a water sipper-style bottle, they will commonly chew the plastic variety and “pop” them. Glass bottles are generally better for chinchillas. Many do like to drink out of crocks as well. If using a crock, owners should monitor the chinchilla’s belly. If it is becoming moist, fungal infections may set in; and a change to a water bottle may be indicated.

Appropriateness as Pets

Although chinchillas are lovely animals, they are not necessarily appropriate for all households.

Good chinchilla owners must be able to provide them a significant amount of quiet, chew-safe space, out of cage exercise time, and a carefully balanced diet to ensure dental as well as gastrointestinal health. While chinchillas are reasonably hardy creatures, their health presuppose good husbandry and nutrition. Pet stores generally do a poor job of educating owners, leaving the responsibility to veterinarians. Sadly, veterinarians are often not consulted until the animal falls ill from a preventable disease.

PetSmart and the Pet Care Trust have a “Pets in the Classroom” program where kindergarten to grade six teachers can get support for having a pet in the classroom. Their release outlines a few of their perceived benefits, and some of the complexities of having pets in classrooms. Their points are in italics, with some comments from me. Little is known about what happens with these pets. We tried to do a survey of teachers from some school boards a few years ago and only ended up getting about two responses out of hundreds of eligible teacher participants (the overall lack of support from board administration didn’t really help get the survey out and get teachers interested either, but that’s another story). So, we really don’t have a good idea of the types of animal contact that occur in classrooms or the problems that result, but we know from various case reports that complications like infections can and do occur.

Hamsters make fun classroom pets because they are active and teach children the importance of schedules and responsibilities.

Yes and no. They can be entertaining, but they can also be distracting. You have to differentiate something that’s a novelty from something that is being used as part of the educational curriculum. Hamsters can be injured with rough handling by young children and close supervision is required. They may also bite when handled, especially when handled by young kids who don’t know what they are doing. Plans to take care of the hamster over holidays and the summer are needed, and are often not considered in advance. The disease risks of hamsters are relatively low, but not non-existent. Having nocturnal animals in a busy daytime setting is also questionable ethically.

Guinea Pigs are easily handled and encourage children to follow a regimented routine.

They are similar to hamsters in their benefits and risk, but their larger size makes them more robust and less prone to handling injury. They are probably one of the better mammals to have in a classroom, but still require good organization, planning and practices.

Fish are a great way to illustrate basic chemistry and biology principles while students follow regularly scheduled water changes.

Fish can be great classroom animals. There are ways to incorporate them into the curriculum, from behaviour to animal care to feeding to water quality and environmental concerns. They need some care, with regular feeding and proper water maintenance, but with basic supervision and planning, the risks to the animals and people are minimal and they can be of benefit educationally.

Bearded Dragons depend on their environment for heating and cooling and are a great way to teach about geography and the environment.

Bearded dragons are great little reptiles with a lot of personality. However, they have specific requirements for care and feeding, something that cannot be easily fulfilled in a lot of classrooms. Also, being reptiles, they are high risk for Salmonella shedding. In a low risk household, it’s not a big deal with basic hygiene practices. However, in a classroom with lots of kids, perhaps limited enforcement of hygiene, and kids eating in the area where the reptile is, the risks get higher.

General guidelines are that children less than five years of age and people with compromised immune systems should not have contact with reptiles. This means they should not be in kindergarten classrooms or rooms where such students may spend time. More complicated is the issue of immunocompromised individuals. I’m not convinced that teachers always know when one of their students is immunocompromised, and what happens if there’s an established pet and a student becomes immunocompromised? Bottom line: Reptiles shouldn’t be in classrooms.

Leopard Geckos are docile in nature and teach children about different nocturnal behaviors.

These are interesting little critters, but not good classroom pets, like other reptiles, for the reasons outlined above.  Nocturnal pets may not be great for classrooms either since the daytime activity and disruption may be harmful to them in the long term.

Certain pets can be good additions to certain classrooms, with some logical planning and common sense, but poor planning and bad animal choices can be harmful to students and animals. School boards should be proactive and develop or adopt sound protocols for classroom pets.

Like people, our pets’ bodies develop cancer cells throughout their lifetime. In the lucky ones, these cells remain dormant and no malignancy ever grows; in others, the cells go mad systematically. The cellular delinquents bust past the body’s natural immune system, as though a gate was left open, burgeoning into abnormal cells. They do not surrender to a healthy cell’s programmed death, so the cellular delinquents multiply as they crowd out healthy cells. They don’t follow any rules and ignore signals that they are overfilling the place. For nourishment, they cause new blood vessels to form to supply them, which should be supplying healthy tissue.

What signs of cancer can we look for in our pets?

1. Lumps and bumps that don’t go away
2. Wounds that don’t heal, particularly if their appearance is changing

1. Limping or other signs of pain while walking, running, or jumping
2. Unexplained weight loss
3. Less energy, less willingness to play, walk, and run
4. Difficulty breathing
5. Bleeding, including nosebleeds, skin bruises, blood in stool, urine, or vomit; pale gums can show blood loss
6. Bad odors from the mouth, ears, or anus
7. Abnormal discharge such as blood or pus; vomiting or diarrhea, particularly if accompanied by other signs
8. Behavior changes such as lethargy, depression, lack of appetite, snapping
9. Changes in urinary and bowel habits, such as straining or going too often

They range from subtle to more obvious that something is going wrong. Signs of cancer can be similar to ones seen in other diseases, so don’t assume your pet has cancer if you see one. Also don’t assume that age alone is causing lethargy or lack of playfulness.

If your pet has one or more of these signs, it’s time for a visit to the veterinarian: catching any disease process early is best because it’s easier to treat.  With cancer, early detection can sometimes make the difference between good health at a reasonable cost and an expensive illness that may include death.

They are highly active nocturnal animals that spend their days resting and come alive at night to collect (and chase) their meals, which usually consist of fruits, vegetables, and insects in the wild. Hedgehogs enjoy a simple life of solitude, and they rely on their spikes and ability to curl up into a ball to protect them from the terrors of the outside world, which can include anything from owls and wolves in the wild to loud noises or new people in our homes.

Hedgehogs usually live for anywhere from 4-6 years, and males should weigh between 500-700g (17.6-24.7 oz) whereas females should weigh around 250-400g (8.8-14.1 oz). As with any other species, there are certain diseases that we commonly see in hedgehogs ranging from obesity to neurological problems, and veterinarians can use the specific signs associated with each disease to determine which part of the body is being affected and what the best treatment will be.

Skin Disease

Skin diseases are fairly common in hedgehogs, and they typically lead to dry, scaly skin. Diagnosing these conditions can be done by taking skin scrapes and looking at them under a microscope or culturing them to see what irritants are causing the problem. Dermatophytosis is a skin disease common to hedgehogs that involves scaly areas around the base of the spines, which can be treated with topical antifungals. Mite infestations also include crusting and flaking of the skin and anti-parasitic drugs are used to eliminate the infestation; however, it is also important to keep your hedgehog’s environment clean and treat any other hedgehogs living in the home, as mites are very good at spreading through the environment- don’t worry, these mites are specific to hedgehogs.

Obesity

Obesity is a common issue seen in hedgehogs because most pet hedgehogs have unlimited access to food, likely in addition to not being active enough throughout the day. This combination can lead to a variety of problems from not being able to roll into a ball for protection to other more serious diseases like hepatic lipidosis (fatty liver disease). Prevention is the best way to approach obesity, which is why it is important that you feed appropriate amounts of high quality food to your hedgehog, provide enrichment opportunities that promote activity, and monitor their weight so that you can catch any weight gain early and adjust their diet accordingly. Getting a food scale to weigh your hedgehog on weekly is a great way to stay on top of their weight. Once an animal has become obese, treatment involves a weight loss program, which means fewer calories a day and more enrichment to promote activity. Offering insects to eat is a great way to increase a hedgehog’s activity level while also supporting their natural feeding behaviors and providing a valuable source of nutrients.  

Gastrointestinal Diseases

Gastrointestinal diseases include anything that affects the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine, colon, or rectum. Signs to look out for include diarrhea, dehydration, decreased appetite, and weight loss. Salmonella infection, which is the most common type in hedgehogs, can be diagnosed with a fecal culture. Treatment involves supportive care and antibiotics. It is also important to consider that this bacteria can be spread to humans – Salmonella is a zoonotic disease – therefore, we must be careful when handling and treating potentially infected animals.

Fractured teeth can make it difficult for your hedgehog to eat, which can lead to unwanted weight loss and excessive salivation. Dental radiographs and an oral exam can diagnose those bad teeth, and treatment includes pain medicine, antibiotics, and potentially even tooth extractions if the fracture is causing additional problems.

Diarrhea and intestinal inflammation are somewhat non-specific signs, which means they can result from a variety of different problems ranging from an inappropriate diet to a bacterial infection. The specific cause of these issues can be diagnosed using diet trials, fecal cultures, and radiographs, and the specific findings will guide the treatment. One specific disease, Hepatic lipidosis, is relatively common in hedgehogs and can develop as a result of any disease that leads to a sudden lack of appetite, like infections or cancer.

Cancer

Cancer is unfortunately common in hedgehogs above the age of 3 years old. They can get many different types of cancer including squamous cell carcinomas, cutaneous mast cell tumors, mammary gland tumors, cutaneous hemangiosarcomas, and reproductive tumors, all of which must be removed. Signs vary based on the type of cancer that they have, but they can include difficulty eating, lethargy, weakness, swelling of the belly, weight loss, blood in the urine, or vaginal discharge. Diagnosis can potentially require bloodwork, radiographs, ultrasound, or a biopsy, and treatment involves removing the tumor, supportive care, and possibly chemotherapy and radiation.

Heart Disease

Heart disease in hedgehogs is usually in the form of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), which means one or more of the heart’s chambers are enlarged. Hedgehogs with DCM can experience difficulty breathing, lethargy, weight loss, and potentially a heart murmur, but it can also lead to sudden death if not treated when these signs arise. Therapy involves medication to manage chronic heart failure, but unfortunately the damage to the heart is irreversible.

Respiratory Disease

Hedgehogs are sensitive to respiratory disease  caused by Bordetella, Pasteurella, and Corynebacterium infections. Watch out for sneezing, nasal discharge, or difficulty breathing. Diagnosis involves radiographs and a culture of their discharge and is treated with antibiotics. . In severe cases, oxygen and opening of the airways  may be needed to avoid  a serious lack of oxygen.

Neurological Disease

Wobbly hedgehog syndrome is a neurologic condition characterized by progressive loss of control of their limbs and weight loss that ultimately leads to paralysis. It can potentially be fatal. The cause of wobbly hedgehog is unknown, however, genetics is believed to play a role. Treatment involves supportive care and hand feeding. Unfortunately,  there is  no cure for this condition.

Musculoskeletal Injuries

Musculoskeletal injuries involve those that affect the hedgehog’s ability to move and use their muscles. Some common injuries include strangling of their little toes and legs due to frayed cloth in bedding (chewed by hedgehogs, of course) and overgrown toenails that get caught in the cage or grow into their footpad. Avoid injuries like these with consistent grooming and monitoring of their environment.

Zoonotic Disease

Should you be concerned about your own safety if your hedgehog gets sick? Some of the diseases we discussed, like Salmonella and dermatophytosis, can spread from hedgehogs to humans. Also, foot and mouth disease, which is highly contagious in humans, has been documented in wild-caught hedgehogs but not in any that are captive bred. Diseases like this are a great reminder of why it is so important to:

• Acquire exotic pets from appropriate and reputable breeders, and
• Give wildlife their space and call a professional if they are in need of help.

Hedgehogs are vulnerable to many different diseases, as are most pets. When it comes to finding and diagnosing these problems, attentive owners are vital to a veterinarian’s success. You know your hedgehog better than anyone else, so you are the best equipped to determine when they are acting out of the ordinary and need to be seen by a veterinarian.

Antibiotics are useless against viruses and will not cure viral infections. Previously, people and pets with viruses were given preventive antibiotics to prevent secondary infections, but this approach is not favored anymore because of the bacteria’s ability to develop antibiotic resistance.

How they Kill Bacteria

Each antibiotic uses a different mechanism with which to kill bacteria. Some work by preventing a bacterium from building a cell wall, some by dissolving bacteria’s membranes, and some affect the way the bacteria build protein or copy DNA. That’s why it’s most effective to culture the infection and know exactly what type of infection is present rather than using a generic broad-spectrum antibiotic; however, sometimes a pet must be started on a broad spectrum antibiotic before the culture results have returned. The earlier any infection is treated, the easier it is for antibiotics to treat it because there are less bacteria needing to be killed.

Antibiotic Overuse

Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria develop the ability to survive the drugs designed to kill them, resulting in failure to cure infections. This is an important reason not use antibiotics unless your pet truely needs them.

A major contributor to antibiotic resistance is failure to finish an entire prescription, which allows surviving bacteria to grow in number and in strength. Antibiotics first wipe out bacteria that are easiest to kill, but there will always be some bacteria that are able to survive the initial effects of an antibiotic.  If the antibiotic is stopped before these more resistant bacteria have been killed, they will reproduce and create a generation of bacteria that is more resistant than the previous generation.  This process is sometimes repeated to the point where we accidentally create bacteria that are so strong that they no longer respond to that antibiotic.  To make things even worse, some bacteria can pass their resistance directly to other bacteria.

Let’s say your pet has an infection. You give him an antibiotic that kills 99.999% of the bacteria, which is generally good because killing off that many allows the immune system come in and take care of the rest. But your pet seems fine and you forget and skip the last few pills.  Unfortunately, killing 99.999% of bacteria isn’t enough because if the infection has several trillion bacterial organisms, the remaining 0.001% can still number in the millions.  In the absence of the antibiotic, those remaining bacteria can flourish, and by the time you notice signs of an infection – which you may think is new, although it isn’t necessarily – it will be harder to get rid of it. Any time you give antibiotics to your pet or a human family member, be absolutely certain to finish all the pills provided in the prescribed timeframe, even when the patient feels better.  Drug-resistant infections, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are more difficult to treat, but they often can still be successfully resolved if treated promptly.

Side Effects

Side effects vary from drug to drug. While people can say, “That pill gave me a stomach ache,” pets obviously cannot, so we really don’t know the full extent of side effects. In general, side effects from antibiotics used in veterinary medicine tend to be uncommon and mild.  One of the more common side effects of antibiotics in pets is vomiting in reaction to nausea. 

For example, the most common side effect of amoxicillin tends to be nausea, which causes pets to vomit, but giving it with food seems to help prevent the nausea. Dogs being treated for Pseudomonas ear infections require very high doses of enrofloxacin,  so nausea may occur, but it’s not likely at the lower doses. Sulfadimethoxine may cause crystals or stones in urine in certain individuals, whereas tylosin may falsely raise the values in liver blood tests. Side effects of metronidazole can be neurologic: staggering, head tilt to one side, dilated pupils, back and forth eye movements called nystagmus, and even seizures (particularly in cats). As with any drug (or food for that matter), individual animals may develop hypersensitivity (allergic) reactions to particular antibiotics.  Mild allergic reactions may lead to vomiting, hives, itchiness, and reddening of the skin, while more severe allergic reactions can result in severe skin reactions, low blood pressure, collapse or shock; fortunately, severe allergic reactions to antibiotics are pretty rare.

To see what common side effects are possible with the antibiotic your pet is receiving, ask your veterinarian or look them up at the manufacturer’s website.

Missed Doses

Most antibiotics are administered anywhere from one to four times a day, but what do you do if you’ve missed giving a dose? That really depends on the drug and the infection being treated; in the majority of cases, you can just wait and administer the next dose at the regularly scheduled time. Antibiotics tend to have wide margins of safety, so giving your pet one a few hours after you were supposed to and then giving the next one at the proper time is usually not going to cause a problem. Instructions are printed on pharmacy sheets that usually accompany a drug but if you don’t receive one with the prescription, call whoever dispensed it to ask. Never double a dose to make up for missed doses, as you run the risk of creating side effects.

However, if your pet has a serious infection such as pneumonia and a dose is missed, it might not be wise to allow the blood levels of antibiotic to drop; in that case it’s best to contact your veterinarian for advice.

Friendly Bacteria

Not all bacteria cause infections; many of them are considered “friendly.” Friendly bacteria help keep us healthy in many ways, so when antibiotics kill friendly bacteria, your pet can lose these benefits.  For instance, friendly bacteria in the digestive tract aid in digestion and help synthesize essential compounds necessary for health; antibiotic therapy may kill off some of these friendly bacteria, causing diarrhea.  Probiotics are mixtures of microbes that are thought to contribute to digestive health and that may be helpful for pets taking antibiotics.  Talk to your veterinarian about whether probiotics are useful for your pet’s situation and which ones are best for your pet.

Used correctly, antibiotics are the big gun in medicine’s ability to heal infections. Used incautiously and when not necessary, antibiotics can cause some difficult problems, such as bacterial resistance. Ask questions if you are not sure what to expect for side effects or if you miss a dose. Administer the entire number of pills provided to your pet to avoid creating bacterial resistance, for everyone’s sake.

More Than You Ever Wanted To Know About Anal Sacs, or Why Is My Pet Scooting?

Should I Do This Myself?

Squirming, at the very least, is expected, so a helper experienced in animal restraint is likely going to be needed to control the front end of the pet. All things considered, anal sac expression may be something best left to anal sac professionals.

What On Earth Are Anal Sacs?

Anal sacs (also called anal glands) are two small glands just inside your pet’s anus. The material secreted into these sacs is thick, oily, stinky, and is commonly described as smelling fishy. Most wild animals can empty these glands voluntarily for scent marking or in self-defense (like a skunk might do); however, domestic animals have largely lost their ability to empty these sacs voluntarily. Walking around and normal defecation serve to empty the sacs, but some animals become unable to empty their sacs on their own at all. The sacs become impacted and uncomfortable.

Dogs with impacted anal sacs usually scoot their rear on the ground in an attempt to empty the glands. Some dogs will lick their anal area, and other dogs will chase their tails. Cats often lick the fur off just under their tails. Some animals are simply vaguely uncomfortable, holding their tails down, shivering, hiding, or showing reluctance to walk. Strangely, some animals seem to refer to their discomfort with their ears and scratch and shake their ears as if they have an ear infection.

What To Do About Scooting?

The first step is to check the anal sacs when any pet has a history of scooting. The anal sacs can be emptied in one of two ways.

What if Scooting Continues?

If scooting continues for more than a few days after sac emptying, the sacs should be re-checked. For some individuals, it takes emptying anal glands several times in a row before the sacs stay emptied.

If the sacs are empty and scooting is persisting, another cause (such as itchy skin, tapeworms, or even lower back pain) should be pursued.

What Happens if an Impacted Sac Doesn’t Get Emptied?

An abscess can form and rupture out through the skin. This is a painful, messy, and smelly condition often mistaken for rectal bleeding. If an anal sac abscess forms, it must be properly treated by your veterinarian. Antibiotics and probably pain medication will be needed.

How Often Should Anal Sacs Be Emptied?

This is a highly individual situation. The best recommendation is to let the pet tell you when the sacs are full. If the pet starts scooting again, it is time to bring him in.

What if My Pet’s Sacs Seem to Require Emptying All The Time?

To avoid the expense of having the sacs emptied, you can learn to empty them yourself at home, but most people feel it is well worth having someone else perform this service. A non-invasive technique that helps some patients is a change to a high-fiber diet. This will produce a bulkier stool that may be more effective in emptying the sac as it passes by. There are also assorted supplements marketed for this use that can be tried. Recently, fiber supplements have been marketed for the same effect. Ask your veterinarian about fiber options for your pet.

Anal Sacculectomy

If the sacs need to be emptied every few weeks or more, you may opt to have the sacs permanently removed. This is generally considered to be a relatively simple procedure by experienced surgeons, but there are some pitfalls a pet owner should be aware of.  The anal sac area is complicated by many local nerves controlling fecal continence, and we do not want to disrupt these. Further, the fact that any change in the local musculature of the anal sphincter region can affect fecal continence, and we do not want to disrupt that, either. (Removing one sac and waiting for complete healing before removing the other sac will greatly reduce the chance of this particular complication.)

If the anal glands have ruptured in the past, there can be a lot of scarring, and the anatomy will be distorted, making surgery more difficult and preservation of the normal local structures more difficult. Draining tracts can develop after surgery if the gland is not completely removed, necessitating a second surgery. On the flip side, of course, is that anal sac expression will never again be needed.

Many people own pets for years without ever learning that anal sacs exist at all, and the wives’ tale that worms cause scooting erroneously continues. If you have further questions about anal gland disease, ask your veterinarian. 

My veterinarian ran some blood tests and said my dog’s liver enzymes were elevated. What does that mean?

Which of the lab values are the liver enzymes?

The main liver enzymes that your veterinarian may look at include the ALT (alanine aminotransferase) and ALP (alkaline phosphatase).

Liver enzymes can be elevated from liver disease or can be secondarily affected by other diseases or processes outside the liver, e.g., pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas), intestinal disease, or certain hormonal diseases such as diabetes or Cushing’s disease (overactive adrenal gland(s) producing too much cortisol). Certain medications, such as steroids (even in eye or ear medications) or phenobarbital (an antiseizure drug), can also cause elevations in liver enzymes.

Why are age and breed important?

Puppies will normally have an elevated ALP because ALP also comes from growing bones, not just liver cells. Some older dogs will have a benign accumulation of water, carbohydrates, or fat in the liver cells (so-called vacuolar hepatopathy). Others can develop nodules as an aging change. These diseases typically primarily cause an elevated ALP and do not really affect liver function or require treatment.

Elevations in ALT and ALP do not necessarily mean the liver is failing or not working properly. However, your veterinarian may recommend another blood test, called bile acids, to assess liver function. Another test that can be used to assess how the liver is working is bilirubin. This is the yellow pigment that builds up in the body when an animal is jaundiced. If the bilirubin is increased, this already indicates decreased liver function (unless the patient is also severely anemic), so bile acid testing in this situation is not indicated as it will not provide additional information.

Certain breeds are prone to particular diseases. For instance, an older Dachshund with elevated liver enzymes may have Cushing’s syndrome. Labradors, Bedlington terriers, Westies, and Dobermans are predisposed to chronic hepatitis (inflammation of the liver). Shelties and Cocker Spaniels are prone to gallbladder problems. The fact that we see certain diseases in specific breeds suggests that there is a genetic/familial component to some of them, although other factors also play a role.

My dog isn’t having any symptoms. Should I be worried about the elevated liver enzymes?

Dogs with severe liver disease can have a variety of clinical signs – decreased appetite, vomiting, diarrhea, neurologic signs, abdominal distention from fluid, and jaundice (yellow discoloration of gums, eyes, skin, etc). However, some dogs with significant liver disease may not show any clinical signs in the early stages. It is much better to diagnose and treat patients before they get sick. As a result, further workup may still be recommended, even if the dog is not having any clinical signs. An example of this is if your dog has a persistently increased ALT – this can be the first sign of chronic hepatitis, which can progress to liver failure. Some cases of chronic hepatitis are due to a toxic build up of copper in the liver that will continue unless you intervene medically.

If your dog isn’t acting sick, your veterinarian may recommend a therapeutic trial of antibiotics (to rule out a possible infection), antioxidants (such as vitamin E,  Denamarin®, or ursodiol (a drug that increases bile flow and decreases inflammation). After a few weeks of therapy, the liver values would be rechecked. Further diagnostics would be warranted if the liver enzymes did not improve.

Besides blood tests, what else can be done to diagnose liver problems?

An abdominal ultrasound may be recommended by your veterinarian. Some diseases, such as a gallbladder obstruction or liver mass, can be readily identified on ultrasound. Ultrasound may also be useful to check for other diseases (besides a primary liver problem) in the abdomen that can affect the liver enzymes, such as pancreatitis.

Some, but not all, dogs with elevated liver enzymes need a liver biopsy to get a diagnosis. Liver biopsies can be obtained with a needle biopsy instrument using ultrasound guidance via a scope (laparoscope) or surgery. Oftentimes, the ultrasound is useful to determine if liver biopsies are needed and which biopsy method is most appropriate. Samples are taken for histopathology, culture (to rule out infections) and often for measuring copper levels. Your veterinarian may refer you to a specialist for further workup.

The treatment and prognosis depend on what is causing the elevated liver enzymes. An optimal treatment plan can be made with your veterinarian once the diagnosis is known.