Dental Disease

Perhaps one of the most common causes of stasis is dental disease. For this reason it is critical that you allow your veterinarian to perform a thorough physical examination, including a detailed dental exam, on your rabbit at least once a year. As your rabbit ages or if he has had dental disease in the past it is possible that your vet will advise that your rabbit’s teeth be examined more frequently. Additionally, any rabbit experiencing GI stasis should have a dental exam as part of the work up. There are many different types of dental disease, from the growth of relatively minor molar points (or spurs), through severe dental abscesses and potentially compromised jaw bones. It is important to note that certain types of dental disease can only be detected with radiographs (X-rays) and/or a sedated oral examination.

Gastrointestinal Disease

Many types of gastrointestinal disease can contribute to anorexia and stasis in rabbits. When this occurs the stasis is known as primary GI stasis. One of the most common causes of primary GI stasis is a poor quality diet. Rabbits have a large fiber requirement, and the bulk of their diet should consist of high quality grass hay. In younger, and in some geriatric rabbits, alfalfa hay is recommended as it is higher in protein and calories as well as calcium. GI stasis is likely to occur in rabbits fed only pellets, or worse yet those fed diets high in sugar and starch, as occurs with rabbits fed oats and/or cereal. Other types of GI disease can cause stasis and these diseases will likely require blood tests, radiographs and various fecal tests to accurately diagnose.

Kidney and Bladder Disease

Kidney and/or bladder disease are perhaps the third most common cause of GI stasis in rabbits. It is believed that the pain and possible toxin buildup in the case of kidney disease lead to anorexia and secondary stasis. Diagnosis may be straightforward in the case of bladder stones, which can be readily palpated at times. However, generally speaking a diagnosis of stasis secondary to kidney or bladder disease will require a detailed physical exam, complete blood work, radiographs and a urinalysis. Depending on the underlying case many of these rabbits will recover their appetite and have resolution of their urinary system disease with appropriate veterinary care.

Reproductive Disease

The vast majority of rabbit owners know the importance of having female rabbits spayed. It has been reported that up to 80% of unspayed female rabbits will develop uterine disease in their lifetime. Sadly, most of these cases will involve the development of potentially fatal uterine cancer or aneurysms.  Usually the first symptom noticed by owners is seeing blood in the urine or on the rabbit’s back end. However, an equally common initial symptom is GI stasis secondary to the uterine pathology. A tentative diagnosis may be achieved based on the pet’s history and symptoms; however a detailed physical exam, radiographs and potentially exploratory surgery (which may be curative if the rabbit is spayed) may be required.

Toxicoses and Lead Paint

It is uncommon for well-cared for rabbits to gain access to toxins. However, after practicing in New York City for several years I have seen many cases of GI stasis secondary to low-grade, chronic lead intoxication. These pets invariably live, or have lived, in buildings built before 1978. That was the year in which the sale of lead paint was banned in the United States. Many rabbits with lead poisoning are “free-range” rabbits. They spend their day out of an enclosure and have the run of the house. Owners may or may not be aware of their rabbits chewing at baseboards, door frames or walls. When lead poisoning is suspected, many owners will state that their home is lead free, even if it was built before 1978. These owners often erroneously believe that renovations and fresh paint means that the lead-based paint has all been removed. This is almost never the case; more often than not the renovations simply cover deeper layers of lead-based paint.

Lead toxicosis appears differently in rabbits than in cats and dogs, and it is unlikely that a non-rabbit savvy vet will suspect this condition. In dogs and cats symptoms are often pronounced, and many times include overt neurological disease. It appears that rabbits are more sensitive to low levels of lead in the blood, perhaps because of their complicated gastrointestinal system. In my experience, lead-poisoned rabbits often demonstrate GI stasis, weight loss and anorexia of several days to weeks’ duration. The symptoms may wax and wane, but no other cause of GI stasis can be found. Lead levels are often in the high normal to low toxic range for dogs. With appropriate treatment the vast majority of these patients make a full recovery.

Conclusion

GI stasis can vary from relatively simple condition for your rabbit vet to diagnose and treat, through one of any number of more complicated and serious medical conditions. You should always seek help from an experienced rabbit vet as soon as your rabbit has showed decreased appetite, or anorexia of 12-hours or more. Owners may not always notice their rabbit’s appetite, and as such decreased fecal production may be the first clue to GI stasis. Once this is noticed a veterinarian should be contacted immediately.

Infection with RHDV causes lesions throughout internal organs and tissues, particularly the liver, lungs and heart that result in bleeding. The blood has difficulty clotting, which contributes to the bleeding because clotting stops bleeding. Bleeding may be internal only or you may see it. Mortality rates ranging from 5 to 70% have been reported for RHDV2. The rabbit may develop a fever and then die within 36 hours. Death usually occurs either from liver failure or hemorrhage. At death, they may have a blood-stained, frothy nasal discharge.

The time from infection to first signs may be as long as 9 days. Infected animals may appear dull and be reluctant to eat; have congested membranes around the eyes; show signs of nervousness, incoordination or excitement; seizures; and/or make paddling movements. They may have trouble breathing.

Rabbits can contract the virus through contact with infected rabbits or with other animals or materials — such as food, water, bedding and vehicles — that have been in contact with infected animals. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, just a tiny amount, possibly even just a few virus particles, is enough to cause infection. The virus is highly stable and can remain active for months in varied temperatures and over distances, enabling it to be spread by biting insects.

In the U.S., it began as a disease of domestic rabbits. The first verified cases of RHDV2 in wild rabbits in the U.S. was when five desert cottontails and one black-tailed jackrabbit in New Mexico tested positive in April 2020. Later, deaths were noted in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico. The deceased rabbits were lying out in the open, suggesting that they had died quickly. RHDV is endemic in Australia and New Zealand, where it was introduced illegally to control the wild rabbit population, as well as in Cuba, parts of Asia, Africa and much of Europe. Outbreaks also have occurred in domestic rabbits in the Middle East.

Subtypes

There are several strains of RHDV. The calicivirus is seen in three forms.

Peracute

Without having appeared ill at all, infected rabbits are found dead, often with a bloody discharge from their nose or genitourinary tract (the organs that produce and excrete urine plus the reproductive ones). Sometimes the rabbit’s mouth and stomach are full of material that is supposed to be in the digestive tract. Because rabbits have such a rapid digestive system, the appearance of this material in their mouths means the disease moves rapidly.

Acute Form

Over a 12-hour period, rabbits become lethargic and depressed and are not interested in eating. A low-grade fever begins, and discharge is seen from the eyes and nose. Oftentimes neurologic signs can be seen, including incoordination, mental dullness, lameness in a back leg, tremors, paddling, seizures, and back spasms. Oftentimes they will be found lying down. They get sick quickly, have trouble breathing, and their heart beats too quickly. Because they are not getting enough oxygen, their mucous membranes, such as gums, can turn blue.

When they are near death, blood comes from openings in the body, notably the nose and urinary/fecal outlet. Death in the acute form often occurs within 24-72 hours from onset, at least in studies.

The “subacute to chronic” form is similar to the acute one but is less severe and death is possible within one to two weeks after infection.

Asymptomatic Form

The classic RHDV strain causes an infection without any symptoms in kits younger than 8 weeks of age. Despite a few bloody noses, these kits thrive even with the infection. They end up having life-long immunity to the particular strain they had, but not to any others.

Transmission

According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, a very low dose, possibly as little as a few viral particles, is enough to cause infection. The virus is highly stable, especially in organic materials, and can remain viable for months in varied temperatures and over distances, enabling it to be spread by biting insects.

Infected rabbits have to be isolated from all other rabbits. They cannot transmit it to animals other than rabbits, so you and your non-rabbit pets are safe. RHD can get in through the mouth, eyes, eyelids, or nose. Bodily fluids and feces of an infected rabbit are thought to contain the virus. The virus can be transmitted from a dead rabbit, and even the fur may be infectious.

The rabbits who survive can shed the virus for at least a month afterwards and has been seen in seemingly healthy rabbits 15 weeks later. Be sure to talk to your veterinarian about when your recovered rabbit can join the others in your home.

Diagnosis

RT-PCR tests are often used for diagnosis. Tests to detect viral antigens are available.

Treatment

Treatment is limited to supportive care, such as IV fluids and medications to treat specific symptoms.

Prevention

There are vaccines being developed. In the U.S., Medgene Labs has received emergency use authorization for their experimental RHDV2 vaccine from the USDA Center for Veterinary Biologics (CVB). The best prevention is not sharing equipment with other rabbit owners and regularly disinfecting all your rabbit equipment, such as waterers, feeders, and toys. You can inactivate the virus with 4-10% sodium hydroxide or 1-2% formalin.

Q. Do Rats’ Teeth Have Roots? I See Conflicting Information.

A. Rats and all rat-like rodents have two types of teeth.  The incisors are the front teeth (two upper and two lower).  These teeth have long crowns.  Under the gum-line and in the bone, the crown extends up to a tooth bud.  Incisor teeth grow for the life of the animal.  The bud produces crown all the time.  The crown under the gum line is called the reserve crown.  The bud is called the reserve crown bud. 

The other teeth in the mouth are like human teeth.  The crown is visible in the mouth, but these teeth are hard to see unless the rat is under sedation.  Under the gum line there is a root.  These teeth, like ours, do not grow after they are formed.

So, the incisor teeth do not have a true root.  On radiographs (x-ray pictures), the reserve crown and bud look like a root, but they are not like other teeth.  All other teeth in the mouth have true roots.

For pet owners who have other rodents, squirrel-like rodents have teeth similar to rats.  Porcupine-like rodents and rabbits have reserve crown and buds for ALL their teeth.

Q. Should I Trim My Rat’s Incisors?

A. A rat whose teeth are normal does not need to have incisor teeth trimmed.  While the teeth grow throughout the rat’s entire life, the teeth meet together (occlude) properly, and grind down on one another to maintain a normal length.  The lower incisors are generally twice as long as the upper incisors.

Q. Do I Have To Trim My Rat’s Incisors If They Don’t Meet Properly?

A. If your rat’s teeth do not meet properly (malocclusion), keeping teeth trimmed to a normal length is necessary to maintain normal function.  Some overgrown teeth will block the ability to eat properly, but others can grow outward and make it easy to snag the tooth and break it.

Q. What Can Be Done For Maloccluded Incisors?

A. There are two appropriate options for managing overgrown maloccluded incisors:

1. Repeated incisor trimmings
2. Pulling (extracting) the incisors

Repeated trimmings can be done but the trimmings need to be done properly.  It is almost impossible to trim these teeth at home: rats are tiny and squirmy, and not all keen on the idea.  If you use a nail trimmer or instrument that puts pressure on the tooth before it cuts, you can cause unseen fractures to the teeth.  This may cause teeth to fall out.  In this case, the tooth bud and at least some of the reserve crown usually remain intact. The tooth will regrow although it may look differently in texture or color, and it may grow in a slightly different direction or angle.  Two other real dangers with improper tooth trims are damage to the soft tissues in the mouth (e.g., lips and tongue) and deep infection of the tooth.  In the latter case, abscesses can develop and require surgical treatment.

In the rare rat, trimmings can be done at home without sedation and with a Dremel® tool.  However, this is a RARITY! Take your rat to the veterinarian. Your veterinarian should be using specific equipment, such as a high speed dental drill or 2-speed or variable speed Dremel-type tool to trim the teeth to a normal length and angle. Many rats need sedation for this to avoid damage to structures other than the teeth. 

Pulling the teeth will be more expensive in the short run but it is advised in many cases. 

The difficulty in pulling these teeth comes from a few factors:

1. The length of the reserve crown (root-like structure under the gum)
2. The ease with which these teeth can break anywhere along their length, and
3. The complete extraction requires removing the reserve crown bud, which is soft.

Stones are most commonly found in the bladder, where they are called bladder stones, and in the urethra. If stones get stuck in the urethra or ureters, they can obstruct the flow of urine, resulting in a life-threatening situation.

If your guinea pig is showing any signs of a urinary problem, get them to a veterinarian as soon as possible.

Causes

We do not completely understand what causes urinary stones, but several risk factors may play a role. Because most guinea pigs’ urinary stones contain calcium, diets with lots of high-calcium foods such as alfalfa hay may be somewhat responsible. Other factors may include long-term dehydration, genetic predisposition, urinary tract infections, obesity, inactivity, poor hygiene, kidney disease and urine retention, or a neurologic disorder.

Why are urinary stones so common in guinea pigs?

Unlike most mammals, guinea pigs get rid of excess calcium mainly through their urine. Thus, their urine is concentrated with calcium, which may make them more prone to developing calcium-containing stones. Guinea pigs also normally produce alkaline urine, which can make them more likely to form stones, particularly in view of the aforementioned risk factors.

Signs

Signs will vary depending on the size and location of the stone(s), but sometimes guinea pigs won’t show any signs. Your guinea pig may have bloody urine and strain to urinate, which owners often incorrectly think is constipation. Other signs that indicate pain and discomfort include loudly grinding teeth, a hunched posture, and vocalizing while urinating. Your guinea pig may produce very little to no urine, stop eating and lose weight, and seem depressed and less active than usual. If you notice any of these signs, bring your guinea pig to a veterinarian as soon as possible.

Diagnosis

For diagnosis, your veterinarian will use a history of your guinea pig’s problem, physical examination findings, and further tests, including X-rays. X-rays can confirm that your guinea pig has them and determine where they are. Your veterinarian may also take a urine sample to check for calcium-containing crystals and signs of a urinary tract infection, which as mentioned can occur with stones. They can also test the sample to confirm whether red urine really is due to blood because sometimes healthy guinea pigs can produce pigmented urine without any bleeding. Your veterinarian may also run blood tests to check on kidney function, look for other abnormalities, and assess overall health.

Treatment

Your veterinarian may want to pursue some of many treatment options, depending on the size and location of the stone(s), your pet’s current status, and what is feasible for you. Surgery is considered the standard of care for large or painful stones. Bladder stones are removed through a procedure called a cystotomy, during which the bladder is cut open and the stones are taken out.

If stones are in the urethra, they can be flushed back into the bladder and removed during the same procedure. Your veterinarian will slide a flexible tube called a catheter into the urethra and pour fluid through it to put pressure on the stone to move, just like hosing rocks off a driveway. If the stone won’t budge, your veterinarian may need to cut open the urethra. Female guinea pigs have such short urethras that sometimes stones can be removed non-surgically using specialized equipment. If your guinea pig has stones in the kidneys or ureters, your veterinarian may recommend bringing them to a surgeon who has the equipment for these procedures.

After surgery, X-rays will be taken to ensure all the stones were removed. Your guinea pig will be given pain medication and fluids. If a urinary tract infection was found on the urine sample, antibiotics may be given. Your guinea pig will need to be hydrated and urinating on their own before being sent home with you.

Some non-surgical techniques may be recommended depending on the situation. If a stone is small (less than 5 millimeters), it could pass on its own. In these cases. Or in cases where surgery is not possible, conservative treatment, such as pain meds, fluids, antibiotics, and careful monitoring (periodic X-rays, checking for blood in the urine, etc.) may be options. Sometimes, a guinea pig won’t have developed stones yet but already has sludge in the bladder. Sludge is crystals in the urine before they form into stones. Sludge may be removed from the bladder through a process called bladder flushing, where your veterinarian pushes fluid through a catheter into the bladder, massages the bladder to mix the sludge and the fluid, then squeezes the bladder to push out the sludge mixture through the catheter. If this method is unsuccessful at removing all the sludge, a cystotomy may yet be necessary.

Prognosis

Even with successful treatment, stones commonly recur in guinea pigs, so it is important to take preventive measures after they are removed.

Generally, the prognosis is considered excellent for bladder stones or sludge, but not as good for stones in the urethra. The prognosis for a urinary obstruction is considered poor, but if diagnosed and managed quickly enough, treatment can be successful.

Prevention

Nothing can 100% guarantee your guinea pig won’t get urinary stones. Nonetheless, the measures listed below may reduce the risk and be worth pursuing, especially if your guinea pig has already had a stone. Recurrence is common.

Diet: Because most urinary stones contain calcium, your guinea pig’s diet should have just the right amount of calcium: enough, but not too much. You can get this balance by avoiding high-calcium foods, such as alfalfa hay, kale, dandelion greens, and spinach. A guinea pig’s diet ideally consists of unlimited amounts of timothy hay, which is low in calcium, along with a smaller amount of timothy hay-based pellets and fresh, leafy green or colored vegetables.

Water: Because chronic dehydration is a risk factor, your guinea pig must stay hydrated. Provide water at all times through multiple sources. Giving your guinea pig wet vegetables and spraying veggies with water can also help.

Exercise: Your guinea pig should get sufficient exercise and play time. The activity may help keep the urine in the bladder moving so that crystals don’t settle and form into stones.

Cage hygiene: Your guinea pig’s living environment should be kept clean to prevent urinary tract infections.

Medications: Your veterinarian may recommend certain medications to reduce the risk of forming more stones. One possibility is potassium citrate; it is given by mouth and binds calcium in the urine, preventing it from crystallizing and coalescing into urinary stones. Some veterinarians may also suggest using a diuretic called hydrochlorothiazide. This drug, also given by mouth, increases urine volume, thus diluting calcium and potentially reducing the risk of forming stones. However, if you use this medication, you must make sure you have multiple sources of water available for your guinea pig at all times. It is necessary to prevent dehydration from so much water being lost in the urine.

Urinary stones are a common and potentially life-threatening problem in guinea pigs. Learn to recognize the signs and bring your guinea pig to a veterinarian as soon as possible if you notice anything wrong.

Guinea pigs with a slight vitamin C deficiency may show no visible signs of disease; however, their immune system may be compromised leading to decreased ability to fight off other illnesses.

The amount of vitamin C required by adult guinea pigs is about 20-25 mg/day and up to 30-40 mg/ day for pregnant guinea pigs. Guinea pig pellets are fortified with vitamin C. However, because vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin it loses its potency over time and guinea pig pellets usually have a shelf life of 90 days after the manufacturing date. After this time, the value of the vitamin C can diminish greatly. Many pet guinea pigs have been diagnosed with a vitamin C deficiency even though they were on a good quality guinea pig pellet. Timothy and other hays should be the foundation of any guinea pig diet. Herbivores require this source of food for good digestion, good movement of food through their system and for dental health maintenance. Unfortunately, the vitamin C content of grasses, grass hays, and legume hays like alfalfa is very low. So how do we get this important nutrient into our pets?

Supplements

Some sources still recommend putting vitamin C in the drinking water either by grinding up tablets and dissolving them or by using vitamin C syrup. However, this is not the most effective way of supplementation due to several problems. The most serious problem is that vitamin C supplements in the water change its taste, and the guinea pig may not drink enough water to get adequate amounts. When this happens, not only do guinea pigs not get enough vitamin C, but they may not drink enough water leading to mild to moderate dehydration. Chronic dehydration may lead to other medical problems such as urinary tract disease. Another issue with vitamin C supplementation of the water involves the stability of the vitamin. Vitamin C is degraded quickly in light, heat, and moisture. Most water bottles are clear so they let in light. It is estimated that after about 8 hours, the amount of active vitamin C in the water is only 20% of the original amount added. For these reasons, adding vitamin C to guinea pig’s drinking water is not recommended.

The best way to supplement vitamin C is either through vitamin C tablets or liquids given directly to the guinea pig or through the fresh foods they eat. Abbott and Proctor and Gamble make flavored vitamin C liquids for children. Abbott’s product (Cecon) is considered by the company to be stable for 3 years from the date of manufacture (1). Proctor and Gamble states that Vicks C drops is stable for 2 years from date of manufacture (1). Other companies have flavored tablets that are listed on the label as being good for about 2 years from date of manufacture (e.g. Kirkman Labs). Oxbow company makes a vitamin C tablet (GTN-50C) for guinea pigs. These tablets are flavored and accepted by many pets as treats. Each tablet contains 50 mg of encapsulated vitamin C. Oxbow states the vitamin C is stable for 1 year from the date of manufacture1. Always be sure to check the expiration date of the product used and do not use past that date.

When using preparations of vitamin C rather than fresh foods, it is important to be sure your pet accepts the treats. Experimenting with different flavors will help you see what your guinea pig enjoys. The tablets can be given by hand if accepted or crushed and sprinkled on a special green (moistened) they like. The liquids can either be given by dropper or syringe (if accepted easily). If you have to fight to get your pet to take the liquid, try something else. Try different methods of feeding different supplements and see what works for you. A trial of a week for each method will give you a good idea what will work and what will not.

Fresh Foods Rich in Vitamin C

Probably the best and perhaps the healthiest way for your guinea pig to get a proper amount of vitamin C per day is through feeding fresh foods that are rich in vitamin C. The foods mentioned below are not only rich in vitamin C but also in a variety of other vitamins and trace minerals. In addition, chewing on these foods is good for the teeth and allows for variety in their diet. A varied diet can be mentally stimulating and is actually an environmental enrichment.

Many foods contain vitamin C. The foods that contain the highest levels of vitamin C per weight of food item are considered vitamin C-rich. However, to supplement a guinea pig with vitamin C, we must also consider the acceptability of the food item to the pig. Unlike children, we cannot make them stay at the dinner table until they have cleaned their plate. We also have to consider whether the vitamin C rich food item is appropriate for an herbivore like the guinea pig.

The first site consulted was the USDA’s report on vitamin C content. For food items not analyzed raw by the USDA, we consulted a web site called Nutrition Data. This web site correlated well with the USDA site on many food analyses and was deemed reliable.

Below you will find a table listing what the authors consider to be excellent, good, fair, and poor choices for vitamin C supplementation in guinea pigs. In this chart, you will find the food item (first column) and the amount of that item needed to provide your pet with 25 mg vitamin C per day (fourth column).

The authors debated about including the items considered a poor source of vitamin C in this article. However, many owners feed these items as treats. For this reason, we opted to make mention of some very poor choices of vitamin C sources. Since we started this list by perusing the USDA report for foods with no less than 30mg vitamin C per measure, if you do not see a food on this list, it is likely to be a very poor source of vitamin C. However, if there is any doubt, consult the web sites above and search for your food item. All foods mentioned are raw unless otherwise noted.

Please do not forget to feed your guinea pig hay, dark leafy greens and vitamin C. A balanced diet rich in vitamin C is the best thing you can provide for your pet.

The USDA provides a large nutrient database for vitamin C. 

Enjoy feeding vitamin C and enriching the diet and life of your pig!

(1) These figures regarding stability were obtained through contact with each company’s technical service department.

EXCELLENT Choice for Supplementing Guinea Pig Diet

Food Item	Weight orVolume of Food	Vitamin C in weight orvolume of food	Amount needed toprovide 25 mg/day
Guava	1 cup = 165 mg	377 mg	1.1 tbsp
Red Peppers	1 cup chopped = 149 g	190 mg	2.1 tbsp chopped
Kale	1 cup chopped = 67 g	80.4 mg	5 tbsp (1/3 cup)
Mustard tendergreens	1 cup chopped = 150 g	195 mg	2.1 tbsp chopped
Parsley	1 cup = 60 g	79.8 mg	5 tbsp (1/3 cup)
Broccoli	1 cup chopped = 91 g	81.2 mg	5 tbsp (1/3 cup)
Broccoli flowerets	1 cup = 71 g	66.2 mg	6 tbsp (between 1/3 and 1/2 cup)
Broccoli leaves	1 oz = 28 g	26.1 mg	2 tbsp
Broccoli stalks	1 oz = 28 g	26.1 mg	2 tbsp
Lambsquarter	1 oz = 28 g	22.4 mg	2.2 tbsp
Cauliflower	1 floweret = 13 g	6.0 mg	About 4 flowerets

GOOD Choice for Supplementing Guinea Pig Diet

Food Item	Weight orVolume of Food		Vitamin C in weight orvolume of food	Amount needed toprovide 25 mg/day
Strawberry	Avg berry = 18 g	10.6 mg		About 2.5 average berries
Kiwi	1 cup = 17 g	164 mg		2.4 tbsp
Green pepper	1 cup chopped = 149 g	120 mg		3.4 tbsp chopped
Mustard greens	1 cup = 56 g	39.2mg		1/2-3/4 cup

FAIR Choice for Supplementing Guinea Pig Diet

Food Item	Weight orVolume of Food	Vitamin C in weight orvolume of food	Amount needed toprovide 25 mg/day
Kohlrabi	1 cup = 135 g	89.1 mg	Just over 1/2 cup
Papaya	1 cup = 140 g	86.5 mg	Just under 1/3 cup
Snap peas	1 cup = 98 g	58.8 mg	Just under 1/2 cup
Turnip greens	1 cup = 55 g	39.5 mg	Just under 1/2 cup
Red cabbage	1 cup = 70 g	39.9 mg	Just under 1/2 cup
Orange	Avg orange = 131 g	69.7 mg	Between 1/4 and 1/2 avg orange
Peas	1 cup = 58 mg	58 mg	About 1/2 cup
Clementines	Avg Clementine = 74 g	36.1 mg	Almost 1/2 average Clementine
Cantaloupe	1 cup balls = 177 g	65 mg	Between 1/4 and 1/2 cup of melon balls
Pineapple	1 cup chunks = 165 g	78.9 mg	1/3 cup of chunks

POOR Choice for Supplementing Guinea Pig Diet

Food Item	Weight orVolume of Food	Vitamin C in weight orvolume of food	Amount needed toprovide 25 mg/day
Dill weed	5 sprigs = 1 g	0.9 mg	154 sprigs
Dried tarragon	1 oz = 28 g	14 mg	About 4 tbsp
Dried basil	1 oz = 28 g	17.1 mg	About 3 tbsp
Dried oregano	1 oz = 28 g	14 mg	About 4 tbsp
Lemon	Avg lemon = 58 g	30.7 mg	80% of average lemon
Dried cilantro	1 tbsp = 2 g	9.9 mg	2.5 tbsp
Chinese cabbage (pak choi or bak choi)	1 cup shredded = 70.0 g	31.5 mg	Over 1/2 cup
Beet greens	1 cup = 38 g	11.4 mg	Over 2 cups
Starfruit (carambola)	Avg fruit = 91 g	31.3mg	Over 1/2 of an average starfruit
Collard greens	1 cup = 36 g	12.7 mg	2 cups
Watercress	1 cup chopped = 34 g	14.6 mg	About 1 and 1/2 cups
Grapefruit	Avg fruit = 120 g	38.5 mg	Just under grapefruit

The sooner a wound is taken care of, the better. Deeply contaminated wounds or those greater than 8 hours old often need to stay open rather than be sewn shut, requiring the use of drains and a lot of extra care on your end.

The most important thing for pet owners to understand is that wounds bigger than a small cut are almost always worse than they look. Oftentimes there is significant damage to the tissue below the wound, which you cannot see. Bite wounds — whether a coyote bites a dog, a dog bites a cat, a cat bites a rabbit, or rabbits bite each other — always have more damage than what you can see. Animal mouths are filled with bacteria, which can easily cause an infection in bitten tissue, and almost always cause contamination. Even if there isn’t much skin damage, there can be significant damage below the skin. Bites lead to a level of care that causes an unexpecting pet owner to be surprised at what is involved.

Dog bites can crush and tear tissue as well as puncture a body. They can also cause lacerations. Cat bites tend to be puncture wounds, but cats can also cause lacerations. Puncture wounds are more likely to become infected than large lacerations. Typically, bites from dogs and cats are received on the neck, face, and legs. Neck wounds are particularly serious because trauma can occur to blood vessels, nerves, airways and the esophagus. The biggest problem with face bites tends to be damage to the eyes.

Impalements from sticks, rakes, and other sharp objects are puncture wounds that can go rather deep into the body.

Usually, pets must be sedated or anesthetized for wound treatment as they otherwise squirm too much and make good care nearly impossible. Wounds are painful and although pain medication is given, it’s often not enough to keep them still during treatment.

The wound may or may not be sutured shut, which means being sewn back together. In certain cases, drains are used to steer any accumulating fluid or pus out of the body (see below).

Preventing Infection

The most critical goal is to prevent an infection from occurring within the wound. Preventing infection is behind much of what happens because deep infections take more time and discomfort to treat than preventing them. Dead or dying tissue has to be removed, a process medically referred to as debriding, before the wound can heal. In some cases, a small wound has to be enlarged so that the veterinarian can see what’s happening in the tissue below it. Then dead hair and other debris has to be cleaned out, and then the wound is disinfected.

Types of Wounds

Wounds are either punctures, abrasions, or lacerations.

Puncture wounds occur after something pokes a hole in the body, such as teeth from another animal, nails (toenails or house nails), sticks, porcupine quills, and bones.

A laceration is a tear that has jagged skin edges. If a dog bites down, it can break the skin and cause a puncture, but if he pulls or the victim pulls away, a laceration may be seen in addition to the puncture. Anything that can create a puncture can also cause a laceration if the skin gets pulled during the trauma.

An abrasion is caused by a rough surface – such as the road, teeth, or gravel – rubbing against the skin. Generally speaking, an abrasion is not as bad as a laceration.

Bites

Bite wounds are usually either lacerations or puncture wounds, which force bacteria into the tissue. Antibiotics are sometimes given because bite wounds are contaminated and can become infected even when the pet is on antibiotics. Giving antibiotics before there is an infection helps keep it from growing out of control.

Dogs tend to bite down, hold, and shake their victims, so they are most likely to cause a tear, but they can also cause punctures. Cat bites tend to be punctures only because their canines are a bit sharper than dogs’ and cats weigh less, so that even if the victim moves, they are less likely to cause a tear.

When Drains are Used

In healthy tissue, the skin attaches to the tissue underneath it so that no space exists between the skin and the tissue. When space becomes available between the skin and the skin tissue (referred to as dead space), fluid accumulates there.  That fluid will delay healing and can allow infection to take hold, resulting in an abscess. If the veterinarian expects fluid to accumulate in the dead space, a drain is placed so fluid and pus won’t build up, and the wound will heal faster. Sedation is needed for drain placement and sutures, but often not needed for removal of the sutures. Typically, the drain does not exit from the wound but from a new incision. 

The drains must be kept clean to prevent more bacteria from entering. Some injuries serious enough for a drain may require the pet to be hospitalized for a bit.  Typically, drains remain in place for 3 to 5 days, but timeframe will vary depending on the type of wound.

Your veterinarian will give you specific instructions on how to clean and care for the drains at home, and when to come back to have them removed. Because the idea is to keep the wounds from filling up with fluid, the drains are going to ooze: that’s their job. You can keep the skin around the drain clean and free of any sticky or crusty goo by gently wiping off any excess fluid with room-temperature water on a clean cloth. That wiping will keep the wound clean, help new tissue grow, and lessen the possibility of infection. Cleaning is usually uncomfortable if not painful, even if the drain itself is not bothering them, so it must be done gently. Don’t clean drains more than once or twice a day, depending on your veterinarian’s instructions.

The oozed fluid can drain wherever the pet goes because it’s a constant process. It may be helpful to keep the pet in a crate or bathroom until the drains are removed so that the mess is contained.

Sometimes a wound is in a place that doesn’t have enough skin for suturing, such as the face, or there’s been enough skin lost that suturing is no longer an option. Drains may be used in those cases.

Treatment

If you cannot get your pet into medical care within a few hours of being injured, the wound should not be closed without a veterinarian first removing the contaminated or dead tissue, a surgical process called debridement.

If possible, the edges of a wound will be sewn (sutured) together because that is the fastest way to heal. However, if there is a lot of contamination or the wound has a deep infection, the wound will be left open for topical treatment and to ensure drainage.

If the wound has abscessed (filled with pus), the pet will need to be sedated so the abscess can be lanced (poked open) and cleaned out thoroughly. Abscesses are a common result of cat bites to cats because we don’t see that there is a wound underneath their fur. With any wound, it’s important to prevent the skin from healing over too soon, especially with lanced and drained abscesses. The wound may open itself if it is closed too early.

Pain medicine should be prescribed. The pain will lessen over the next few days.

While this is harder than it sounds, don’t let your pet lick the healing wound or the drain. Your veterinarian should provide an e-collar so your pet can’t reach the wound. Typically, this will be a plastic cone; there are many types available at pet supply businesses that may be more comfortable for both you and your pet.

After a couple of days, if the wound looks worse than it did when the pet received it, contact your veterinarian.

Generally speaking, after the would heals, your pet will return to being the same physically as they were before – perhaps with a scar that doesn’t grow fur, perhaps not.

Why is it so dangerous to eat?

Yeast is a microscopic fungus that, under the right conditions, makes carbon dioxide gas and ethanol (alcohol) from sugar. This effect is great for making bread because gas makes the dough rise and ethanol flavors the bread before burning off in the oven. However, this process is dangerous when it occurs in your animal’s stomach.

Being moist and warm, the stomach is essentially the perfect environment for yeast to grow and pump out carbon dioxide and ethanol. The buildup of gas and rising dough in the stomach is painful and can lead to a condition called bloat: “the mother of all emergencies.” Also known as gastric dilatation and volvulus, or GDV, bloat is where the expanding stomach puts pressure on surrounding areas and decreases blood flow to important organs. Even more dangerous, the stomach may eventually twist, cutting off blood flow even more. The twisted stomach can reduce blood flow throughout the whole body, leading to a serious condition called shock.

Several steps are needed to save a bloated dog’s life. Part of the problem is that the main three steps – decompress the stomach, give IV fluids to fight shock, and stabilize the heart rhythm – should all be done at the same time and as quickly as possible.

Although GDV can be life threatening, death from yeast dough in pets is usually due to the effects of ethanol. Ethanol is alcohol, like that found in beer, wine and spirits,  so the ethanol produced by yeast can cause alcohol poisoning. This poisoning can lead to low blood sugar, low blood pressure, decreased body temperature, seizures and trouble breathing.

Signs

Early signs of yeast dough ingestion are generally those associated with bloat. Your pet may try to vomit or retch but not produce anything or maybe just a little white foam. Additional signs include an enlarged abdomen due to the buildup of gas and dough, in addition to weakness, increased heart rate, and collapse.

Signs of alcohol poisoning generally occur two or more hours after dough is ingested. You might be able to smell alcohol on your pet’s breath. Your pet may seem drunk, becoming uncoordinated and disoriented. They may also feel cold to the touch. Seizures and trouble breathing are two other serious signs of alcohol poisoning.

What should I Do?

Get to a veterinarian as soon as possible, as this is potentially a life-threatening emergency.

If your pet just recently ate the dough and isn’t showing any symptoms yet, your veterinarian may try to induce vomiting to remove it from the stomach. As you can imagine, bread dough is so gummy and sticky that it is hard to vomit up. So, other methods of removal will likely be necessary.

Yeast love the warmth in a stomach. If you make the stomach cold, you can slow the yeast’s growth and the production of alcohol and gas. This slow down can be accomplished by feeding ice chips or flushing the stomach with cold water. These treatments can also break up the dough and make it easier to pass through the rest of the digestive system. In rare cases, the dough may need to be surgically removed.

Treatment also involves dealing with your pet’s specific clinical signs and may entail giving intravenous fluids to correct any blood abnormalities and to speed up removing alcohol from the bloodstream. If your pet is cold, heating blankets, warm intravenous fluids and other techniques may be used to warm them up. Depending on your pet’s symptoms, medications may be given to reduce pain, treat seizures, correct breathing abnormalities, manage vomiting, etc.

The veterinarian will need to monitor your pet for at least 12 hours until they recover.

Prognosis

Pets generally do well if the yeast dough is removed quickly and they are treated soon after ingestion. Unfortunately, pets suffering from severe alcohol poisoning, bloat, or GDV have a more guarded prognosis.

To prevent this life-threatening situation altogether, avoid letting your pets have access to raw yeast dough by letting it rise in areas your pets can’t reach, such as elevated places in the kitchen, or in a closed oven or microwave.

We know that rabbits have the same neurophysiological mechanisms as humans to produce pain and therefore have the capacity to feel pain in the same manner as ourselves. Often, rabbits do not cry out or make sudden movements like humans, dogs or cats when painful areas are palpated. Signs of pain in the rabbit are often more subtle. Since rabbits are prey animals, meaning that hold a place in nature that places them in a position to be preyed upon by other animals, they have developed mechanisms to deal with that lot in life that might mask signs of illness or pain. Rabbits can become very still, pull their body up tight or lie very flat, and barely blink their eyes when they are frightened or anxious. This can give the appearance that they are “calm” to those individuals that don’t know how to read this body language. In this state rabbits may not respond to palpation of painful areas of the body or the response may be so subtle it is almost undetectable. Rabbits, like other companion animals, are being taken to veterinarians in increasing numbers. Over the last two decades there has been an explosion of knowledge about their medical and surgical care in the veterinary community. Rabbits are living longer and thus have the potential to experience the discomfort of illness or surgery at some time in their lives. Veterinarians have an increasing number of safe choices for managing pain in rabbits. The first step for pain management is to recognize the signs of pain in the rabbit.

Signs of Pain in Rabbits

Rabbits are often in a state of heightened anxiety or fear when they visit a veterinary office, particularly if they are not familiar with the office or there has been a long car ride to get there. It is more likely that signs of discomfort will be detected more readily when a rabbit is in his safe, home environment where he is not trying to spend time hiding. It is vital that caregivers learn their companion rabbit’s normal behavior and pay close attention to any changes that take place that are out of the ordinary. Reporting these changes to a veterinarian will be vital in determining care for a rabbit.

The following are signs that have been associated with pain in the rabbit. Remember that not all these signs are SPECIFIC for pain and some may also occur with nonpainful conditions. However, all these signs are abnormal and should be cause for further investigation.

• Abnormally “hunched” appearance when sitting 
• Alert but reluctant to move 
• Moves slowly or with effort 
• Eyes partially closed when there is activity around that should create interest (in a new or active environment a rabbit’s eyes should normally be open and round in shape) 
• Limping 
• Unusual or sudden aggression, particularly when handled if this was not the case before 
• Loss or decrease in appetite or water consumption 
• Tooth grinding 
• Hiding (when it is not usual behavior)/facing the corner or pressing the head in a corner 
• Shows no interest in the surroundings (loss of curiosity) 
• Crying or “grunting” when moving/defecating/urinating or being handled/examined 
• Coat is unkempt due to loss of interest in grooming 
• Taking a long time to eat 
• Dropping food out of the mouth

If moderate or severe pain is not managed in a rabbit, then over time there are a number of serious and possibly life threatening side effects that may develop which include:

• Gastric (stomach) ulcers 
• Cardiomyopathy (heart muscle disease) 
• Alterations in the gastrointestinal (GI) flora which may lead to a shut down of the GI tract or other disease
• Drop in body temperature 
• Renal ischemia (lack of blood supply causing damage to kidney)

Importance of Analgesia in Rabbits

Domestic rabbits maintain the physiology and behavior of a prey species and they experience pain in the same manner as other companion animals. Even though a rabbit may be handled frequently, he will respond to pain and stress in the same manner as his wild ancestors and as seen above if moderate to severe pain is not managed it can have serious consequences. Therefore it is ESSENTIAL that pain relief be used appropriately in rabbits in order in improve the quality of their lives and the treatment success. I believe that rabbits should be given the benefit of the doubt and if the condition that is diagnosed or the surgery that is performed would be painful in humans or other companion mammals, then it should be assumed that it is painful in rabbits and pain management should be used.

Common situations in rabbits where pain management is used include: surgical intervention, gastrointestinal disease, dental disease, trauma, and arthritis.

Analgesic Choices

There are a great many excellent and safe choices for analgesia in the rabbit. I have listed the most common ones below.

Safe, quiet, comfortable environment

I cannot say enough about providing a safe, quiet, comfortable environment for a rabbit to help minimize stress and the intensity of pain. Excessive noise, handling and lack of safety can intensify the level of pain any animal or human might be feeling. Having a hiding or safe protected area is important any time but particularly so when a bunny is not feeling well. It should be an area that is easily uncovered by the caregiver (such as an upside down cardboard box with a hole cut in the side which can be gently lifted) so the rabbit isn’t disturbed greatly when he needs to be seen. 

Keep noise to a minimum including barking dogs and running, noisy children. Don’t have a rabbit’s living area right next to the stereo or the TV. Minimize handling, especially picking up the rabbit and carrying him around while he is ill. Keeping litter boxes clean and having appropriate amounts of hay and fresh foods available is also important. Please see more about proper rabbit care.

Drugs (oral, injectable or transdermal) Opioids

These drugs are related to morphine and there are several safe and effective candidates in this category. They are most often used for bone pain and as part of a pre and post surgical pain management protocol. These drugs are most often given by injection, but some can be given orally or as a transdermal patch on the skin.

Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)

These drugs are the most commonly used analgesics and include meloxicam, carprofen and others. NSAIDs are the most common analgesics used for chronic pain. They have both analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties so they are often used with mild to moderate pain. NSAIDs appear to be well tolerated in rabbits for long periods of time. They can be given orally or by injection.

Other pain medications

There is currently investigation into many other pain medication drugs such as tramadol. It is likely that more and more drugs will become available as veterinarians report their experiences using these products and more scientific research is performed.

Drug combinations

Many times it is necessary to use more then one type of analgesic to treat a painful condition. In some cases, rabbits become resistant to the effects of a drug that has been used for a while and it may be necessary to change to a different analgesic.

Local Anesthetics

Local anesthetics can be administered in the form of topical creams or drops or by injection into the skin. The most common uses of local anesthetics in the rabbit include minor skin procedures (skin biopsies, small tumor removals, IV catheter placement), ophthalmic procedures (tear duct flushing and thorough eye exam) and nasoesophageal tube placement (the drops are put in the nose so the small tube can be placed in the awake patient without discomfort). Local anesthetics are not meant to be used for long term analgesia and their duration of action is fairly short.

Epidural Anesthesia

Epidural anesthesia is performed by injecting an anesthetic agent into the spinal fluid of a sedated rabbit which produces numbness from the injection site backwards down the spine.  This is what is commonly used currently with women experiencing childbirth. Epidural anesthesia is currently most useful to control postoperative pain after an abdominal surgical procedure, particularly GI surgery. This would be a short-term anesthesia and would have to be administered and monitored in a veterinary clinic.

Acupuncture

Acupuncture as a form of analgesia goes back thousands of years. It is well established in humans and in the veterinary community that this form of therapy can be very effective in controlling pain under certain conditions. It is a form of therapy that is worth investigating particularly for chronic or persistent pain.

Chiropractic/Acupressure/Massage

All of these modalities can have a place in relieving pain. Gentle side-to-side rocking massage of the belly can be useful particularly in cases of gastrointestinal disorders where gas is produced. Chiropractic adjustments may help joint or spinal pain and acupressure used appropriately may relieve mild to moderate pain in a variety of areas.

Conclusion

Rabbits definitely benefit from the use of analgesia in painful conditions. The humane choice is to use analgesia in the painful rabbit. It is important for caregivers to work with their veterinarian to provide important observations on how their companion rabbit is responding to analgesic treatments and to also provide the most comfortable environment for their bunny’s recovery. Rabbits deserve the same humane pain management care that we would expect for ourselves!

Still, cigarettes have plenty of nicotine and even a small cigarette butt can mean serious illness or even death for a small pet.

The toxic dose for nicotine in pets is 0.5 to one mg per pound of pet body weight while the lethal dose is four mg per pound of pet body weight. So how does this translate to nicotine-containing products?  A cigarette contains between 9 & 30 mg of nicotine depending on the type of cigarette. When the cigarette is smoked, the nicotine concentrates down in the oral end meaning that a small nub of a cigarette butt will retain 25% of the nicotine contained in the original cigarette. Smoking a cigarette yields 0.5-2.0 mg of nicotine to the smoker but eating the cigarette (or other nicotine product) is a whole different ballgame as all of the nicotine becomes available for absorption into the body. Consider that a 2-lb dog would only need 10 mg of nicotine to become poisoned and a 40-lb dog would need only 1cc (less than a quarter teaspoon) of e-juice.

• Cigarettes: 9-30 mg of nicotine
• Cigarette butts: 2-8 mg of nicotine
• Cigars: up to 40 mg of nicotine
• Chewing tobacco: 6-8 mg of nicotine per gram
• Nicotine gum: 2-4 mg of nicotine per piece
• Nicotine patches: 8.3-114 mg of nicotine
• E-cigarette cartridges: 6-36 mg of nicotine
• E-juice/E-fluid (to refill E-cigarettes): up to 36 mg of nicotine per ml

Symptoms of Nicotine Poisoning

Signs begin as quickly as one hour post-ingestion. Symptoms include:

1. Tremors
2. Constricted pupils
3. Drooling
4. Auditory and visual hallucinations
5. Excitement
6. Vomiting and diarrhea
7. Twitching, possibly progressing to seizures
8. Racing heart rate but slow heart rate with small doses
9. High blood pressure but at higher doses, there is a circulatory collapse

It is easy to confuse nicotine poisoning with other poisonings such as strychnine, chocolate, organophosphate insecticides, and certain molds. Hopefully, there will be cigarette materials in the vomit to give away the diagnosis. It is also worth mentioning that some nicotine gums contain xylitol as a sweetener. This material is toxic to dogs and can add an entirely new dimension to nicotine poisoning.

Treatment

If not too much time (an hour or so) has passed since consumption of the nicotine product, vomiting can be induced. Washing out the stomach to get rid of any remaining cigarette materials is helpful but is likely to require sedation as well as activated charcoal to bind the nicotine and prevent it from entering the body. Obviously, this would be performed at the veterinarian’s office.

Treatment is basically supportive after that. Intravenous fluids support circulation while the body gets rid of the nicotine. If seizures or tremors are occurring, medications will be needed to suppress them.  If the pet survives the first four hours, the prognosis is felt to be good. Nicotine is inactivated by a healthy liver and its metabolites are excreted in the urine. After 16 hours, the nicotine ingested should be gone.

The ASPCA National Animal Poison Control is available 24 hours a day at 888-426-4435. Expect an initial consultation fee of around $100.00 and additional follow-up is at no charge. You will be assigned a case number your veterinarian can use to communicate with a toxicology specialist before beginning treatment.

Water

Clean water must be accessible to any animal at all times. Some species, such as chinchillas and gerbils, require less water due to physiological adaptations to living in a dry environment, but they still need a water source always available. A sipper water bottle is the best choice because it cannot be contaminated with bedding, food, feces and urine. The sipper part of the bottle should be metal and not plastic, which can easily be damaged by inquisitive teeth.  Animals unfamiliar with a sipper bottle may have to be trained to use it. It is not necessary to add vitamins to the water for any of these species if the recommended diets are followed. The disadvantages of adding vitamins include making the water taste disagreeable and promoting bacterial growth. In addition, many vitamins are inactivated shortly after they are exposed to air, water and light, which reduces their effectiveness. Although it is a rare problem, it is possible to overdose a pet on vitamins, which can result in disease. Medications should be added to the water only under the advice of your veterinarian.

Water bottles or bowls should be emptied and filled with fresh water daily to encourage drinking (some animals don’t like stale water) and to prevent overgrowth of bacteria.

Remember that giving food to your pet is not just a matter of making sure it gets its nutrients.  Food is also something that is mentally stimulating and interesting for your pet.  Most animals in the wild spend a good portion of their day looking for food.  When we give them all the food they want all the time in one place in their cage it can be pretty boring!  We are essentially taking away the “work” they do and it is no wonder animals can become lethargic and overweight.  Once your pet is comfortable in your home and is eating well, try making some changes in how and where you feed.  Try stuffing pellets or healthy treat foods in toys like small boxes or toilet paper rolls or plain white paper twisted closed at each end.  Try hiding the food around the cage or exercise area so they have to forage for it.  Be inventive and have some fun.  Treat foods, as listed for each species, are great to use for training your pet for a variety of simple behaviors that make life interesting for both of you!

Food As An Environmental Enrichment

As a general rule, any changes in your pet’s diet should be made slowly over a period of time to avoid intestinal upsets. If your pet is not in the best of health, or if you are in doubt about changes that should or should not be made as suggested by this article, please consult your veterinarian before proceeding. The dietary recommendations in this article are for NON-BREEDING, NON-PRODUCTION PETS. If you are involved in a breeding or a production program, you may need to make adjustments in the amount and types of foods fed.

Rabbits

The biggest mistake people make when feeding rabbits is overfeeding high calorie and high starch foods such as commercial pellets and grains and underfeeding high fiber foods such as hay and greens. This pattern of feeding can lead to obesity and gastrointestinal disease. The most important part of the house rabbit diet is an unlimited supply of grass hay, which provides essential fiber as well as proteins, vitamins, minerals and carbohydrates. Because of the high fiber content of the hay, it is the best preventative for stomach and intestinal problems such as chronic soft stools. Hay (and greens) also provide some of the essential work needed to keep the teeth worn down due to all the chewing the rabbit needs to do to break it down.  Hay should be provided for your pet in a box or hay rack and should always be available. Hay can also be stuffed in empty paper towel or toilet paper rolls, unpainted, unvarnished baskets, empty boxes and so on to provide a sense of foraging for food, which is a mental enrichment.  Grass hay is preferred over alfalfa hay because grass hay is lower in calories and calcium. There are several types of grass hays available such as mixed orchard grass, timothy, Bermuda or oat. Hays vary depending on the area of the country and the time of the year. Sources of hay include pet stores, feed stores and online companies. Hay should be stored in a cool, dry area in an open bag to allow for good air circulation. Hay should have a fresh smell. Damp hay can become moldy and should be discarded. Rabbits of any age can be introduced to hay without any special preparation. Rabbits are perhaps the third most commonly kept mammal after dogs and cats in the United States. They are not rodents, but are included in a family called Lagomorpha. They are strict herbivores and have continually growing incisors and molars that are designed to tear and macerate tough leafy foods. The jaw moves from side to side when the rabbit is eating and the teeth are worn down by this action. Rabbits require a large percentage of fiber in their diet to maintain normal gastrointestinal motility. Rabbits have a large cecum, which is a blind pouch located at the junction of the small intestine and the large intestine, where the digestible portions of the intestinal contents enter and are broken down by bacteria. Some nutrients are absorbed through the wall of the cecum, but most nutrients are locked up in the bacteria. The rabbit then produces bacteria-rich droppings called cecotropes, which are softer, stickier, greener and have a stronger odor than the regular waste droppings. These cecotropes are eaten directly from the anus as soon as they are produced. The cecotropes are then passed through the digestive tract of the rabbit and nutrients such as vitamins, amino acids and fatty acids are released from the bacteria and absorbed into the rabbit’s body. In this way, rabbits are efficient at producing their own vitamin, protein and fat supply from food that for some animals, such as ourselves, would be totally useless.

Another important part of the house rabbit diet is fresh, leafy greens. These foods provide not only fiber, but a variety of vitamins, such as A and C, minerals, proteins, and carbohydrates. Most rabbits really enjoy their greens. The old stories about greens causing ‘diarrhea’ are usually referring to rabbits that have been on a low-fiber or high-calorie diet, such as a commercial pellet or a high-grain diet, that are suddenly introduced to greens. On commercial pellets or grains, the flora in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract may not be as varied as in a hay and greens based diet.  Additionally, the GI tract may become a bit sluggish due to the high calorie content and lower fiber content. When greens are introduced to these rabbits, more water is introduced into the GI tract than the rabbit got on the dry commercial diet.  In addition, the GI flora has to shift to accommodate the new food and the GI tract ‘speeds up’ to a more normal rate. All this can result in temporary soft stools, which usually stabilizes within a week. However there is no reason for your rabbit to have to experience this if you follow this rule.  For rabbits that have never been on anything but pellets, first introduce hay and once your rabbit is eating hay well for at least four weeks, then introduce greens.  

When first introducing greens for any rabbit, do so one type at a time every three days to make sure your rabbit is handling things well.  Keep track of the foods you have fed and once they have been successfully introduced you can feed any selection you like each day.  Once your rabbit has been introduced to greens, feed at least three different types of greens daily so that you provide a variety of nutrients. Greens should be washed thoroughly, to remove dangerous pesticides. Uneaten fresh foods should be removed from the cage after 3 to 4 hours to prevent spoilage. The amount to feed is a maximum of 1 packed cup of greens for each 2 lbs of body weight daily   You can feed this all at once or divide it between two or more feedings a day.  Some examples of nutritious greens are: dandelion greens (and flowers), raspberry leaves, kale, mustard greens, escarole, endive, radicchio, collard greens, beet greens, carrot tops, parsley, turnip tops, romaine, Swiss chard, bok choy, mint leaves, cabbage (red and green), etc. Use dark, tough, leafy greens as opposed to light colored thin-leafed greens such as bibb lettuce and iceberg lettuce.

Commercial rabbit pellets were originally designed to promote rapid growth, weight gain, and ease of feeding for production rabbits (meat and fur) and laboratory rabbits. They are efficient at what they are designed to do, but for the house rabbit that is to live out a full life, the unlimited feeding of a commercial pellet may be a problem. Once rabbits are full grown, they don’t need to put on more weight. Feed your juvenile pet a commercial pellet that is designed for the maintenance of the adult rabbit, with a fiber content of 18% or higher, a protein content at around 13-14% and fat content at no more than 3%. Once a young bunny has reached its adult size (4-8 months depending on the breed) we recommend cutting back the pellets to 1/4 cup per day as a MAXIMUM. Remember, there is always hay available so your pet will never go hungry. Pellets should be bought in amounts that will be used within 3 months and kept in a closed container in a cool dry place to prevent spoilage. Do not use pellet mixes that contain grains and seeds along with the pellets. The addition of the grains and seeds only add to the calorie and fat content, which can result in obesity, liver and intestinal disease. Some obese rabbits that have difficulty losing weight on pellets may have to have them removed from the diet altogether, but this should be done only under your veterinarian’s supervision. 

Additional supplements are not needed for rabbits on a diet that is rich in hay, greens and limited pellets.

Guinea Pigs

Guinea pigs have a special requirement that rabbits and other rodents do not. Guinea pigs, along with humans and primates, require an outside source of vitamin C.  Other animals produce their own vitamin C within their bodies. Commercial foods made specifically for guinea pigs should have vitamin C already added.  The problem is that vitamin C is water soluble and not stable when exposed to sunlight or high temperatures or when stored for a long time.  Sometimes the pellets you buy may not have been stored properly or are too old and you may think your pet is getting enough C when that’s not the case!  The good news is that there are other ways to give vitamin C.  One is through good quality grass hay, as mentioned.  The other is by feeding dark, leafy greens that are richer in vitamin C then an orange! For instance a cup of fresh kale contains approximately 250 mg of vitamin C compared to a cup of oranges (without the peel), which contains only 50 mg of C. The minimum daily vitamin C requirement in the guinea pig is around 25 mg per day. Guinea pigs can easily get this amount and more with the feeding of 1/2 to 1 cup of fresh leafy greens daily. (Use the same greens as listed for rabbits above.) Some particularly high vitamin C foods are kale, dandelion greens, parsley, collard greens, green peppers and mustard greens. Supplementing vitamin C in the water is not effective due the rapid breakdown of the vitamin when it is exposed to light and heat; also, some vitamin C products have a bitter taste and this is not recommended.  There are also vitamin C chewable tablets that can be given if your pet will not eat any of the green foods mentioned.  Please consult your veterinarian if you choose to give vitamin C in a tablet or liquid form to make sure that you are not overdosing your pet. Guinea pigs, rats, mice, hamsters, gerbils, and chinchillas are all rodents, but they have some distinct differences in their dietary requirements due to the diverse habitats where they originate. Guinea pigs are herbivores and require a similar diet as rabbits with plenty of grass hay and greens and limited commercial pellets. They have continuously growing incisors and molars, which like the rabbit wear down with the normal action of eating. Guinea pigs also produce nutrient-rich cecotropes in a similar manner as rabbits, which they eat directly from the anal area. Guinea pigs should have unlimited grass hay, which is rich in nutrients, not too high in calories, promotes healthy intestinal tract movement and flora and is helpful for proper tooth wear.

Healthy treat foods for guinea pigs are the same as listed for rabbits above.  Feed a maximum of 1 level tablespoon of combined treats per day.  These can be great to use for training as well.

As with rabbits, commercial pellets were designed for rapid growth and ease of feeding, however unlimited feeding of commercial pellets can lead to obesity.  Therefore, limit pellets to 1/8 cup pellets per 2 lb guinea pig daily. As mentioned above, even though guinea pig pellets have vitamin C added, you should not depend on them to provide the full daily amount. Guinea pig pellets must be used within 90 days of the day they were produced to guarantee sufficient amounts of vitamin C. In many situations, bags of pellets have been sitting on the shelf for longer than 3 months and the vitamin C content is drastically reduced due to breakdown by contact with air, moisture and high environmental temperatures. Scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency, is still one of the most common diseases seen in the pet guinea pig who is fed a strictly commercial pelleted diet. Rabbit pellets should not be substituted for guinea pig pellets because they may contain excessive levels of vitamin D, which can be toxic to guinea pigs. Do not feed cereal grains or sugary foods to guinea pigs for the same reasons as in the rabbit.

Guinea pigs are notorious for playing with their water bottles and spilling a great deal of water into the cage. The bottle may have to be refilled frequently and the bedding underneath it changed daily to prevent mold from growing.

Chinchillas

Chinchillas also can get the same treat foods as rabbits at a maximum of 1 tablespoon a day.  Unlike rabbits, however, you can give your chinchilla a small amount of raw or roasted UNSALTED nuts daily such as pumpkin seeds, sunflower or safflower seeds, flax seeds, millet, almonds, pecans and walnuts. Chinchillas rarely have a problem with obesity and these ‘treat’ foods appear to be greatly relished. Commercial chinchilla pellets can be fed in the amount of 1/8 cup daily for an adult chinchilla. The pellets should contain approximately 16 to 20% protein, 18% fiber, and about 2 to 5% fat.  Because chinchillas come from a dry environment they do not drink much water but it should still always be provided.  A sipper bottle is preferred. Chinchillas have a diet similar to rabbits. They are herbivores with continually growing teeth as in the rabbit and guinea pig. They originally came from a dry, cold mountainous area where their diet consisted primarily of tough dry grasses. Chinchillas should be provided with unlimited grass hay as described for the rabbit because the fiber is critically important to proper digestion and the tough hay strands may be helpful in keeping the teeth worn properly. They can also be offered greens as described for the rabbit, but they don’t need as much since their natural diet is much more dry then a rabbit’s diet.  Feeding about ¼ cup per day of any of the greens listed for rabbits is usually sufficient. 

Rats, Mice, Hamsters, And Gerbils

Rats, mice, hamsters and gerbils have similar dietary requirements. They are all primarily seed eaters but rats, mice and particularly hamsters are also known to eat some insects and other small animals either fresh or as carrion. All of these species have long, continually growing incisors, which are worn down by the action of eating and by chewing on hard surfaces such as wood in the process of creating nests and burrows. The basic diet for this group should consist of a good quality rodent chow or lab block. Rodent chows should have a minimum of 16% protein and 4 to 5% fat content. These dry foods can be left in the cage at all times in a bowl or hanging feeder to be consumed as needed. However as mentioned at the beginning of this article it may be more interesting for your pet to have the food put in the environment a couple of times a day; try putting it in different areas, or hiding it as described. Very young, recently weaned animals may have a problem gnawing on the hard pellets and it will be necessary to break them into smaller pieces or soften them for a few weeks until the pet is more mature. Pelleted food should be purchased in amounts that will be used within three months to prevent spoilage. Good quality rodent chows are considered to be fairly complete diets for this group.

 Other foods can be fed in addition to the commercial pellets but should not constitute more than 20% of the total diet. Fruit and vegetables as described for the rabbits, guinea pigs and chinchillas can be offered at a rate of about 1 teaspoon/day. Remove any uneaten fresh foods within 3 to 4 hours to prevent spoilage. All of these species love grains, nuts and seeds, but these foods should be offered in small quantities because of their high fat content. A reasonable amount of nuts and or seeds would be a total of 1 teaspoon/day for rats and about ½ teaspoon for the other species.  If these ‘treat’ foods are given free choice, the pet will eat them exclusively, not eat the balanced pellets and develop nutritional disease such as obesity.

Ferrets

Ferrets in recent years have been traditionally fed a dry commercial diet.  There are now many diets on the market that state they are designed specifically for ferrets.  The problem with all of these diets is that in order to make the dry shape of the food, it is necessary to use grains such as corn, rice, wheat or potato.  Being strict carnivores, ferrets do not digest nor need these plant products in their diet.  Grain-based diets may also predispose ferrets to urolithiasis. In addition, some researchers have discovered that feeding an all-dry diet is too hard for a ferret’s small teeth and it may cause excessive wear to the teeth over time, leading to dental disease as the ferret ages.  The most natural diet for a ferret would be one that is comprised of whole prey, such as humanely killed whole mice, small rats, chicks and so on.  While whole-prey diet is somewhat popular in Europe, its use has never really caught on in North America. Therefore, if one is to depend primarily on commercial foods, then a variety of foods would be the best choice. Ferrets are strict carnivores and belong to the family Mustelidae. They have a short digestive tract and food passes from one end to the other in about three to four hours. Ferrets have a minimum protein requirement of 32%, which, when combined with the short amount of time that the food is in the intestinal tract, necessitates a high quality dietary meat protein. Plant proteins are not digested and used by ferrets. In addition, they have a high fat requirement, around 20 to 30%. Ferrets use fat as their main energy source. They are poor digesters of fiber and they cannot utilize carbohydrates effectively for energy.  It is also important to note that ferrets, like cats, will develop strong taste preferences by the time they are 4 months of age.  This gives these animals the reputation for being “finicky” later in life, but it is really based on their natural biology.  Therefore it is a good idea to expose young ferrets to a variety of tastes and textures that will expand the foods they will eat later as an adult.

Ferrets can be fed a either a high quality cat or ferret commercial diet that has a minimum of grain in it.  There are several diets available for either ferrets or cats (also strict carnivores) that fit the bill.  Look for a food that has at a minimum 32% and a maximum of 40% protein and at least 20% fat.  Because these diets may be hard on the teeth over time, it may be preferable to sprinkle some water or chicken broth over the food to slightly soften it.  It is not necessary to blenderize it or make it into a soup. Contrary to prior recommendations for feeding dry food to ferrets, it is not necessary to have food in the cage constantly.  Ferrets are highly intelligent hunters and would have only eaten once or twice a day.  Therefore, it is only necessary to put the food in twice a day for 30 to 60 minutes and then remove it.  In this way they will gain some mental stimulation looking forward to mealtime.  Try putting the food in different places and hiding it in their play area to give them a chance to “hunt” for it.

In addition to the commercial diet, you can feed about a tablespoon of a good quality all-meat canned cat food.  Avoid foods that have vegetables or grains in them.  This addition will be both mentally stimulating and will expand the variety of meat sources your pet will get.  Many of the commercial diets are based on chicken, so try canned beef, venison, duck, turkey and other meats if possible.

Some ferrets enjoy bits of fruit and vegetables such as green peppers, bananas, cucumbers and melons. These are not foods a ferret would normally encounter in the wild but in small amounts they are not harmful. Feed no more than 1 level teaspoon per ferret per day of a fruit or vegetable. They cannot digest fiber well, and if these items are fed in excess, your pet may develop diarrhea. Foods to completely avoid include breads, breakfast cereals, cakes, cookies and dried fruits such as raisins. These foods contain too many sugars, which can be damaging to the ferret’s pancreas.

Unfortunately, ferrets love sweet foods and may beg for these treats, but you take a serious risk with your pet’s health in offering them.  Many of the commercial treats sold for ferrets have sugar in them, so it is best to avoid them.  Remember ferrets are carnivores so select their treats appropriately.

Fatty acid supplements may be beneficial to your ferret, particularly if the fat content of the food you are giving is under 20%.  If the fat content is too low you may see the hair coat become dry and the skin flakey.  Your ferret may be itchier as well.  If needed, use a good quality supplement that includes Omega 3 and Omega 6 oils.  Check with your veterinarian for a source.  Use about ¼ teaspoon per ferret per day.   Please note that if your ferret’s coat does not respond to the addition of the supplement within a couple of weeks or if there is hair loss or skin disease, please have your pet examined by a veterinarian.  These signs are indications of disease that is not related to diet.

Conclusion

Feeding your pet will take some thought and preparation, but once a routine is established it should be easy to accomplish. Good nutrition is the basis for a strong body. Feeding your pet in a healthy manner will help to prevent many potential disease problems down the road.

Visit your veterinarian with your pet regularly not only for health checkups but to stay informed of current information in the ever-evolving field of small mammal husbandry and care.